tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-45014329849822117862024-02-20T14:35:19.632-08:00NDAVENEAqui encontraras artigos, discursos, comentarios, noticias...e a mim...NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.comBlogger26125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-8105705417976786122015-03-03T12:18:00.001-08:002015-03-03T12:18:32.458-08:00Diário de um sociólogo: Assassinato de Gilles Cistac: hipóteses sobre contexto, causalidade e consequências<a href="http://oficinadesociologia.blogspot.com/2015/03/assassinato-de-gilles-cistac-hipoteses.html?m=1">Diário de um sociólogo: Assassinato de Gilles Cistac: hipóteses sobre contexto, causalidade e consequências</a>NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-35117559563100699652015-02-17T12:07:00.001-08:002015-02-17T12:07:41.568-08:00Diário de um sociólogo: Quem é quem no novo governo moçambicano<a href="http://oficinadesociologia.blogspot.com/2015/02/quem-e-quem-no-novo-governo-mocambicano.html?m=1">Diário de um sociólogo: Quem é quem no novo governo moçambicano</a>NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-2702591821844058142015-02-08T11:28:00.001-08:002015-02-08T11:28:57.270-08:00Diário de um sociólogo: Guerra subterceirizada por recursos minerais: um estudo de caso do Congo<a href="http://oficinadesociologia.blogspot.com/2015/02/guerra-subterceirizada-por-recursos.html?m=1">Diário de um sociólogo: Guerra subterceirizada por recursos minerais: um estudo de caso do Congo</a>NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-7568789110310748092015-01-23T06:18:00.001-08:002015-01-23T06:18:05.923-08:00Relatório Provisório Reafirma Teoria De Suicídio Do Comandante Do Voo Da LAM
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<b><span lang="PT" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Relatório Provisório Reafirma Teoria De Suicídio Do Comandante Do Voo Da
LAM<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><o:p><span style="font-family: Calibri;"> </span></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">January 22, 2015No CommentsAcidentes/Incidentes, Aviação Comercial,
Destaques Moçambique, Moçambique, PaisesCatanho Fernandes<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Um relatório provisório distribuído pelas autoridades namibianas que
investigam as causas da queda do avião Embraer 190 das Linhas Aéreas de
Moçambique (LAM), em Novembro de 2013, na Namíbia, reafirma a teoria de
suicídio do piloto, noticia hoje, quinta-feira a imprensa namibiana.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><o:p><span style="font-family: Calibri;"> </span></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Segundo avança o jornal ‘The Namibian’, o Ministério das Obras e
Transportes da Namíbia, responsável pela investigação, divulgou um relatório
interino, reafirmando que o comandante do voo TM470, Hermínio dos Santos
Fernandes, despenhou intencionalmente a aeronave, provocando a morte de todos
os 33 ocupantes, incluindo seis portugueses.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><o:p><span style="font-family: Calibri;"> </span></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Assinado pela Direção de Investigação de Acidentes Aéreos (Directorate of
Aircraft Accident Investigation’s) do ministério namibiano, o relatório foi
divulgado a 1 de Dezembro do ano passado, quando se cumpria um ano sobre o
desastre que vitimou 27 passageiros e seis membros da tripulação do avião
Embraer E190 da Linhas Aéreas de Moçambique (LAM), que fazia a ligação
Maputo-Luanda.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><o:p><span style="font-family: Calibri;"> </span></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Essencialmente baseado nos registos de voz e de dados das duas caixas
negras que foram recuperadas entre os destroços, no Parque Nacional de
Bwabwata, na faixa de Caprivi, e que foram analisados pelo Conselho Nacional de
Segurança no Transporte (National Transportation Safety Board) dos Estados
Unidos, o documento refere que, antes do acidente, a aeronave voava normalmente
e sem falhas mecânicas.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><o:p><span style="font-family: Calibri;"> </span></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Hermínio dos Santos Fernandes encontrava-se sozinho na cabina de comando,
quando foi iniciada manualmente uma descida repentina, fazendo o avião descer
da altitude cruzeiro de 38 mil pés para 4.288 pés, seguida de 1.888 pés e, por
último, para 592 pés, já abaixo do nível de elevação do solo sobre o qual a
aeronave voava, indica o documento.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><o:p><span style="font-family: Calibri;"> </span></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">O gravador de voz, adianta o relatório, registou vários sinais de alerta
automáticos do avião, além de constantes batidas na porta da cabina de comando.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><o:p><span style="font-family: Calibri;"> </span></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Antes da descida, que durou cerca de sete minutos até ao embate no solo, o
copiloto do avião, Grácio Chimuquile, tinha-se deslocado à casa de banho,
deixando Hermínio dos Santos Fernandes, de 49 anos e com mais de nove mil horas
de voo, sozinho no interior da cabina de comando, adianta ainda o documento.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><o:p><span style="font-family: Calibri;"> </span></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">O relatório refere também que nenhum pedido de ajuda foi emitido por parte
dos membros da tripulação.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><o:p><span style="font-family: Calibri;"> </span></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">De acordo com o jornal de ‘The Namibiam’, as autoridades do país deverão
divulgar em breve o relatório final sobre o acidente do voo TM470, que será
depois submetido à Organização da Aviação Civil Internacional (ICAO, na sigla
em inglês)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"><o:p><span style="font-family: Calibri;"> </span></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<o:p><span style="font-family: Calibri;"> </span></o:p></div>
NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-24982693815264528172015-01-23T06:00:00.001-08:002015-01-23T06:00:47.594-08:00Há um incêndio em marcha, e seu nome não é Islã - Joaquim Palhares - Diretor de Redação
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span lang="PT" style="color: red; font-family: "Tahoma","sans-serif"; font-size: 20pt; mso-ansi-language: PT; mso-fareast-language: PT;">Há um incêndio em marcha, e seu
nome não é Islã <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "Tahoma","sans-serif"; font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT; mso-fareast-language: PT;">Joaquim Palhares - Diretor de Redação<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-family: "Tahoma","sans-serif"; font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT; mso-fareast-language: PT;"><v:shapetype coordsize="21600,21600" filled="f" id="_x0000_t75" o:preferrelative="t" o:spt="75" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" stroked="f">
<v:stroke joinstyle="miter">
<v:formulas>
<v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0">
<v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0">
<v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1">
<v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2">
<v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth">
<v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight">
<v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1">
<v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2">
<v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth">
<v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0">
<v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight">
<v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0">
</v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:formulas>
<v:path gradientshapeok="t" o:connecttype="rect" o:extrusionok="f">
<o:lock aspectratio="t" v:ext="edit">
</o:lock></v:path></v:stroke></v:shapetype><v:shape alt="http://cartamaior.com.br/arquivosCartaMaior/FOTO/150/739904D39159AAE01D08EBDA968EB4D0C00175CD1D42B2860842D1EC4EF4FE27.png" id="Picture_x0020_1" o:spid="_x0000_i1025" style="height: 156.75pt; width: 480pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:href="cid:image001.png@01D036A0.8E550C30" src="file:///C:\Users\ARAO~2.DAV\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="color: #0061a6; font-family: "Tahoma","sans-serif"; font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT; mso-fareast-language: PT;">postado em:
17/01/2015 </span><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "Tahoma","sans-serif"; font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT; mso-fareast-language: PT;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 16pt;">
<span lang="PT" style="font-family: "Tahoma","sans-serif"; font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT; mso-fareast-language: PT;">"No mesmo dia do ataque ao Charlie Hebdo, 37 jovens foram mortos no
Iémen num atentado a bomba.<br />
<br />
No verão passado, a invasão israelita causou a morte de 2000 palestinos, dos
quais cerca de 1500 civis e 500 crianças.<br />
<br />
No México, desde 2000, foram assassinados 102 jornalistas por defenderem a
liberdade de imprensa e, em Novembro de 2014, 43 jovens, em Ayotzinapa.<br />
Certamente que a diferença na nossa reação diante desses acontecimentos não
pode estar baseada na ideia de que a vida de europeus brancos, de cultura
cristã, vale mais que a vida de não europeus ou de europeus de outras cores e
de culturas associadas a outras religiões.<br />
Será então porque estes últimos estão mais longe de nós ou conhecemo-los menos?<br />
Será porque a grande mídia e os líderes políticos do
Ocidente banalizaram o sofrimento causado a esses outros, quando não os
demonizam ao ponto de nos fazerem pensar que eles não merecem outra coisa?<br />
"Esta análise é urgente, sob pena de continuarmos a alimentar um fogo que
amanhã pode atingir as escolas dos nossos filhos, as nossas casas e as nossas
instituições".<br />
<br />
Com essas palavras carregadas de advertências ao consenso construído
nos últimos dias, o sociólogo Boaventura Santos encerra um dos textos do
ESPECIAL que Carta Maior oferece aos seus leitores neste fim de semana,
sobre o <i>brutal</i> atentado em Paris.<br />
<br />
O material reúne artigos e reflexões de autores renomados, como o próprio <b><i>Boaventura
de Sousa e Santos, Julian Assange, Flávio Aguiar, Joe Sacco, Michael Lowy,
Slavoj Zizek, Robert Fisk, Rita Almeida, Altamiro Borges, Tarik Ali,
Leonardo Boff, José Antonio Gutierrez, Rosana Rossanda, Martín Granovsky, José
Carlos de Assis, Cristiano Paixão, José Otávio Guimarães, Eduardo Febbro,
Marcelo Justo</i></b><i> ,</i> entre outros.<br />
<br />
Esse mosaico de pontos de vista cumpre a função de um verdadeiro
caleidoscópio da reflexão.<br />
<br />
Trata-se de arguir as certezas graníticas rapidamente convocadas a
partir da justa comoção gerada pelo massacre à redação do Charlie.<br />
<br />
O objetivo aqui não é endossar a pauta do jornal, tampouco contestar a
indignação justa, mas arguir a sua abrangência.<br />
<br />
O que se busca é a reflexão capaz de romper a camada pétrea de
conveniências e interesses sobre a qual se assenta o veredito
conservador em torno da brutalidade desse episódio.<br />
<br />
Ele anunciou o amanhecer de 2015 com um estrondo que sacudiu o novo normal
disseminado por um capitalismo feito de deflação recessiva, desemprego
estrutural e captura do Estado e da política pela internacional
financeira.<br />
<br />
Sim, é certo, como diz Boaventura, que um incêndio arde nas entranhas do
nosso tempo.<br />
<br />
Mas antes que ele se alastre de forma incontrolável sobre as nossas próprias
consciências, é preciso afirmar peremptoriamente: seu nome não é Islã.<br />
<br />
É para essa reflexão que Carta Maior convida à leitura deste <a href="http://cartamaior.com.br/?%2FEspecial%2FCharlie-um-incendio-chamado-seculo-21%2F187"><span style="color: blue;">ESPECIAL</span></a>.<br />
<br />
</span><span lang="PT" style="mso-ansi-language: PT;"><a href="http://cartamaior.com.br/?/Especial/Charlie-um-incendio-chamado-seculo-21/187"><span style="font-family: "Tahoma","sans-serif"; font-size: 16pt; mso-fareast-language: PT; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><v:shape alt="http://cartamaior.com.br/arquivosCartaMaior/FOTO/150/especial.png" id="Picture_x0020_2" o:spid="_x0000_i1026" style="height: 403.5pt; width: 480pt;" type="#_x0000_t75"><span style="color: blue;">
<v:imagedata o:href="cid:image002.png@01D036A0.8E550C30" src="file:///C:\Users\ARAO~2.DAV\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image003.png">
</v:imagedata></span></v:shape></span></a></span><span lang="PT" style="font-family: "Tahoma","sans-serif"; font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT; mso-fareast-language: PT;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="PT" style="font-family: "Tahoma","sans-serif"; font-size: 16pt; mso-ansi-language: PT; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: PT; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
</span>NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-49159088629374025502015-01-19T21:01:00.001-08:002015-01-19T21:01:57.886-08:00Diário de um sociólogo: 2016: riqueza mundial com 1% da população<a href="http://oficinadesociologia.blogspot.com/2015/01/2016-riqueza-mundial-com-1-da-populacao.html?m=1">Diário de um sociólogo: 2016: riqueza mundial com 1% da população</a>NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-76970648227563846852015-01-19T00:30:00.001-08:002015-01-19T00:30:52.625-08:00DISCURSO OFICIAL DE INVESTIDURA - FILIPE NYUSI<b><span style="font-family: Arial-BoldMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial-BoldMT; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
DISCURSO OFICIAL</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
CERIMÓNIA DE INVESTIDURA</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
S.E. FILIPE JACINTO NYUSI</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
PRESIDENTE DA REPÚBLICA DE MOÇAMBIQUE</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
PRAÇA DA INDEPENDENCIA</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
15 DE JANEIRO DE 2015</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
MAPUTO</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial-BoldMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial-BoldMT; font-size: medium;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Cambria;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Cambria;"><div align="LEFT">
1</div>
</span><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
Moçambicanas e Moçambicanos!</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Caros Compatriotas,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Iniciamos hoje uma importante etapa do nosso percurso histórico</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
como Povo e como Nação que levará Moçambique a um novo</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
patamar de Harmonia e Desenvolvimento.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
É com elevada honra e a maior humildade que assumo a Alta</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Magistratura do Estado e da Nação, como o quarto Presidente da</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
República de Moçambique. Este é o mandato que milhões de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
moçambicanos me conferiram em mais um processo de eleições</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
democráticas, para liderar os destinos desta grande Nação nos</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
próximos cinco anos.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Nesta ocasião, manifesto do fundo do coração a minha gratidão para</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
com o Povo Moçambicano que exerceu o seu direito, dando mais uma</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
vez a oportunidade à Frelimo e ao seu candidato para liderar o</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
desenvolvimento de Moçambique. Quero dirigir o meu apreço a todos</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
os intervenientes no processo eleitoral, a todos que tornaram possível</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
que esta escolha fosse feita num ambiente livre e democrático.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Saúdo a todos os moçambicanos pela sua participação no sucesso da</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
democracia. Neste momento,pouco importa a opção política,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
ideológica ou religiosa de cada um. Assumo as minhas funções como</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Presidente de todos os moçambicanos, disposto e disponível a escutar</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
todos os sectores da opinião pública.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Expresso os mais calorosos cumprimentos de boas vindas à</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
República de Moçambique e à nossa Capital, Maputo, aos Chefes de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Estado e de Governo, representantes de países irmãos de África e de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
outras regiões do mundo e de organizações internacionais.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
A vossa presença neste acto demonstra a fraternidade e a confiança</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
que nutrem para com o nosso povo.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Saudamos os representantes dos partidos políticos, as autoridades</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
militares, civis, religiosas e tradicionais e todos os ilustres convidados.</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></span><b><span style="color: #10121b; font-family: Arial-BoldMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #10121b; font-family: Arial-BoldMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #10121b; font-family: Arial-BoldMT; font-size: medium;"></span></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="color: #10121b; font-family: Arial-BoldMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #10121b; font-family: Arial-BoldMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #10121b; font-family: Arial-BoldMT; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
Compatriotas,</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="color: #10121b; font-family: Arial-BoldMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #10121b; font-family: Arial-BoldMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #10121b; font-family: Arial-BoldMT; font-size: medium;"></span></span></span><span style="font-family: Cambria;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Cambria;"><div align="LEFT">
2</div>
</span><span style="color: #10121b; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #10121b; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #10121b; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #10121b; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #10121b; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #10121b; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
O meu coração e pensamento inclinam-se de maneira comovida em</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
memória das vítimas da tragédia em Chitima. A minha mensagem</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
fraternal de profundas condolências vai para todos os familiares</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
enlutados e vão também os votos de uma rápida recuperação para os</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
que estão em tratamento hospitalar.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
As minhas preces e sentimentos estão igualmente com as famílias</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
afectadas pelas recentes cheias em Moçambique, particularmente nas</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
províncias da Zambézia, Nampula e Manica. Endereço, a todos os</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
moçambicanos directa ou indirectamente afectados por esta</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
calamidade, a mensagem de muita força e coragem, neste momento</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
difícil que atravessamos.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Tudo faremos para dar uma resposta o mais rápido possível aos</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
efeitos deste desastre natural. Tudo faremos para amparar e apoiar os</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
moçambicanos a ultrapassar este período de extrema demanda de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
esforços e coragem humana. Tudo faremos para insistir na</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
recuperação das infraestruturas destruídas. Tudo faremos para</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
assegurar que a vida em Moçambique volte à normalidade.</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></span><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
Compatriotas,</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></span><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
Como disse na minha campanha: o povo é o meu patrão. O meu</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
compromisso é de servir o povo moçambicano como meu único e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
exclusivo patrão. O meu compromisso é o de respeitar e fazer</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
respeitar a Constituição e as Leis de Moçambique. E eu estou pronto !</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
E estou confiante que, juntos, iremos construir o bem-estar do nosso</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
povo e um futuro risonho para as nossas crianças.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Represento uma nova geração, uma geração que recebe um legado</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
repleto de enormes sucessos e de exaltantes desafios. Repousa sobre</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
todos nós, de todas as gerações a responsabilidade de preservar as</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
conquistas alcançadas pelo nosso povo. Esse percurso foi liderado por</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
homens visionários e comprometidos com a causa da liberdade e do</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
bem-estar dos Moçambicanos. A nossa história é rica em conquistas</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
que fizeram de Moçambique um caso de sucesso, citado e respeitado</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
em todo o Mundo. A riqueza desse legado histórico fundamenta-se em</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
três conquistas principais:</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Cambria;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Cambria;"><div align="LEFT">
3</div>
</span><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
- A Independência Nacional, o ponto de partida de todo o nosso</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
percurso como povo e como Nação;</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
- A Unidade Nacional, condição para a construção de um Moçambique</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
democrático, unitário e próspero;</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
- A Paz, condição primária para a estabilidade política,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
desenvolvimento económico, harmonia e equidade social.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Estas conquistas são sólidas por serem abraçadas por todos os</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Moçambicanos. Mas nenhuma conquista pode ser considerada</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
definitiva. É preciso consolidar a nossa Independência. É preciso</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
consolidar a nossa Unidade Nacional. É preciso consolidar a Paz</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
como um valor presente na vida de cada cidadão, cada família e em</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
todos os cantos do território nacional. Deve ser inabalável a certeza de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
que nunca mais os moçambicanos viverão sob a ameaça do medo e o</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
espectro das armas.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Os valores da convivência pacífica, harmoniosa e da solidariedade</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
social devem ser vividos como uma cultura colectiva, a nossa cultura</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
de todos os dias. Todos os actores sociais, desde a família, as</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
confissões religiosas, a sociedade civil, os partidos políticos, as</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
instituições de ensino e de pesquisa, são chamados a participar</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
activamente na educação dos cidadãos e na consolidação de uma</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
cultura nacional de diálogo e de harmonia.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Estou consciente da necessidade de se reforçar, o papel das</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
instituições da Justiça e da Lei e Ordem para que o nosso povo, tão</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
pacífico e trabalhador, deixe de viver ciclicamente num clima de medo</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
e de insegurança.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Como Chefe de Estado, primarei pela abertura ao diálogo construtivo</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
com todas as forças políticas e organizações cívicas para promover a</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
concórdia. Podem estar certos, caros compatriotas, que tudo farei para</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
que, em Moçambique, jamais, irmãos se voltem contra irmãos seja a</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
que pretexto for.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Defenderei de forma vigorosa os direitos humanos, em particular o</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
direito à vida e às liberdades fundamentais do homem.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Cambria;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Cambria;"><div align="LEFT">
4</div>
</span><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
Compatriotas,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Os desafios que temos pela frente vão certamente implicar novas</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
atitudes colectivas e individuais. Esses desafios implicam a coragem</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
de operar mudanças. As mudanças que forem necessárias devem ser</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
feitas democraticamente e dentro dos marcos institucionais e com a</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
máxima responsabilidade.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Assumo a chefia do Estado e do Governo herdando um País em</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
franco crescimento socioeconómico resultante dos esforços dos</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Governos e Administrações anteriores.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
No exercício da Alta Magistratura do Estado buscarei a inspiração nos</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
ideais e nas obras dos líderes que me antecederam.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Em Mondlane, buscarei a visão da unidade nacional e a certeza de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
que as nossas diferenças não nos dividem na aspiração comum, de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
construirmos um Moçambique mais unido e coeso.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Inspirar-me-ei em Samora, na determinação para a edificação de um</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Estado mais forte e com instituições cada vez mais íntegras e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
democráticas ao serviço do povo moçambicano.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Buscarei no Presidente Chissano, o espírito de tolerância e de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
reconciliação da família moçambicana, para a consolidação da paz</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
duradoira, condição fundamental para o desenvolvimento.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Prosseguirei com o dinamismo do Presidente Guebuza na edificação</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
de infraestruturas básicas e na afirmação da economia moçambicana</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
rumo ao progresso e bem-estar dos moçambicanos.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Moçambique é um país abençoado em recursos naturais, em especial</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
terras aráveis, florestas, recursos minerais e marinhos. A descoberta</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
recente de importantes reservas de carvão, gás e areias pesadas</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
colocam Moçambique na rota mundial e destino obrigatório do</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
investimento.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
No meu governo, garantirei que as acções de pesquisa, produção,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
distribuição e industrialização sejam feitas de forma transparente e</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Cambria;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Cambria;"><div align="LEFT">
5</div>
</span><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
responsável, contribuindo para a expansão, transformação e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
modernização da economia moçambicana.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Lutarei para que os moçambicanos sejam os donos e a razão de ser</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
da economia, assegurando uma crescente integração do conteúdo</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
local e a participação efectiva dos moçambicanos nos projectos de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
investimento, em especial na exploração de recursos naturais. O meu</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Governo vai assumir-se como parceiro estratégico na afirmação de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
uma classe empresarial moçambicana mais ampla e robusta. Quero</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
que o nosso Estado e os moçambicanos em geral, sejam os</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
verdadeiros donos das riquezas e potencialidades da nossa pátria.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Conhecemos o valor da solidariedade dos povos do mundo inteiro.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Saberemos reconhecer a contribuição de todos os que demandam o</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
nosso país para aqui investir, trabalhar e conviver no quadro do</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
respeito pela legislação moçambicana.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
O meu Governo promoverá um ambiente macro-económico</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
equilibrado e sustentável por forma a consolidar um clima de confiança</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
num investimento seguro e no retorno dos justos benefícios.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Queremos construir um país que aposte na formação e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
desenvolvimento do capital humano, o principal activo nacional.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Investiremos na formação de moçambicanos de todas as regiões do</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
país. Promoveremos a criação de novos postos de trabalho para</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
qualificações de nível superior, médio e básico. E apostaremos no</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
aumento visível e tangível a médio e longo prazo das receitas públicas</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
e do rendimento nacional médio e per capita.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Entretanto, continuaremos a apostar nos sectores tradicionais como a</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
agricultura, pescas, agro-indústria, transportes e serviços, turismo que</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
dispõem de um grande potencial para a geração de emprego.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Eu e o meu Governo trabalharemos com determinação para melhorar</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
as condições de vida do povo moçambicano aumentando o emprego,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
a produtividade, a competitividade e criando a riqueza para o alcance</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
do desenvolvimento inclusivo. Para a realização destes objectivos é</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
crucial que nos empenhemos na consolidação do Estado de Direito</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Democrático, na Boa Governação e Descentralização.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Cambria;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Cambria;"><div align="LEFT">
6</div>
</span><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
Queremos que Moçambique continue a ser referenciado como um dos</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
países do mundo que mantém taxas de crescimento elevadas. Isto é</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
positivo e benéfico a longo prazo. Por isso mesmo, esse crescimento</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
deve ser mantido e valorizado. Estamos conscientes, porém, que o</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
bem estar do cidadão comum não pode ser medido apenas por</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
indicadores macro-económicos. É assim que, apesar dos resultados</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
alcançados, existem ainda grandes segmentos da nosso povo nas</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
zonas rurais, peri-urbanas e urbanas, vivendo em condições de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
pobreza.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Esta pobreza remanescente é tanto mais grave quanto a nação</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
moçambicana é uma nação maioritariamente jovem e com uma</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
elevada taxa de crescimento demográfico. As previsões são claras:</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
em 2025 seremos cerca de 33 milhões de Moçambicanos. Precisamos</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
de preparar hoje esse futuro não muito distante. Precisamos de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
acções e não de palavras. Precisamos de uma plataforma de unidade</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
efectiva e não de retórica política e ideológica. Porque esse futuro, que</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
é tão próximo, vai requerer mais habitação condigna, mais alimentos,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
mais água potável, mais e melhores serviços de saúde e educação,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
mais emprego, mais transporte e melhores condições sociais e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
económicas.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Por consequência, assumo o compromisso, perante a Nação, de dirigir</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
um governo norteado por valores de eficácia, competência e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
humildade, um governo que tome a mulher e o homem moçambicanos</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
como o centro da sua intervenção. Um governo empenhado na</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
equidade do género e no respeito e valorização da criança.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
O governo que irei criar e dirigir será um governo prático e pragmático.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Um governo com uma estrutura o mais simples possível, funcional e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
focado na resolução de problemas concretos do dia-a-dia do cidadão,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
na base da justiça e equidade social. Será um Governo orientado por</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
objectivos de redução de custos e no combate ao despesismo. A</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
nossa origem é a de gente simples e trabalhadora. Sabemos, por isso,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
o valor da contenção de despesas e na aplicação responsável das</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
nossas contas públicas.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Compatriotas,</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Cambria;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Cambria;"><div align="LEFT">
7</div>
</span><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
Precisamos de planos de desenvolvimento orientados para a redução</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
das assimetrias regionais e locais. Só assim se consolidará, de facto,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
a unidade nacional.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Promoverei uma governação participativa fundada numa cada vez</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
maior confiança e num efectivo espírito de inclusão. Este espírito de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
inclusão só se conquista por via de um permanente e verdadeiro</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
diálogo. Necessitamos de construir consensos, necessitamos de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
partilhar, sem receio, informação sobre as grandes decisões a serem</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
tomadas pelo meu Governo.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Assim, as organizações da sociedade civil, os camponeses, o sector</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
privado, a academia e a intelectualidade, as ordens socioprofissionais,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
os sindicatos, as confissões religiosas, as autoridades tradicionais e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
comunitárias, os jornalistas, os artistas, os desportistas, todos,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
homens, mulheres e jovens terão a oportunidade de participar</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
efectivamente nos processos de tomada de decisões.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Moçambicanas e Moçambicanos,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Eu acredito que juntos podemos reavivar um sonho colectivo</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
multissecular. Esse sonho é de uma Nação soberana, próspera, a que</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
todos se orgulhem de pertencer, independentemente da etnia, da</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
região, da tribo, da raça, da religião, do género, da condição familiar,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
social ou da filiação político-partidária. Nenhum moçambicano poderá</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
ser excluído desse diálogo a pretexto de qualquer factor de divisão ou</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
distinção.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
A construção de uma sociedade de inclusão exige não apenas</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
discursos e declaração de intenções. Trabalharei para tornar mais</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
visível e real a inclusão de que todos falamos e tanto ansiamos.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Estarei aberto a acolher propostas e ideias de outros partidos visando</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
a promoção da tranquilidade e desenvolvimento do Moçambique. As</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
boas ideias não tem cor partidária. As boas ideias têm uma única</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
medida, que é o amor pela nossa pátria e pelo nosso destino comum.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Caros compatriotas,</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Cambria;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Cambria;"><div align="LEFT">
8</div>
</span><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
Dentro de dias anunciarei a equipe governamental que a mim se irá</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
juntar. Pretendo criar um governo com a dimensão adequada para as</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
necessidades de contenção e de eficácia. Esse Governo terá que ser</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
firme na defesa do interesse público. Esse Governo terá que ser</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
intolerante para com a corrupção. Esse Governo não poderá tolerar</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
qualquer discriminação nas instituições do Estado a todos os níveis.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Dois critérios básicos nortearão os órgãos da administração pública e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
da justiça: o mérito e o profissionalismo.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Exigiremos maior eficiência e melhor qualidade das instituições e dos</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
agentes públicos que respeitem os princípios da legalidade,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
transparência e imparcialidade por forma a servir cada vez melhor o</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
cidadão.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Asseguraremos que as instituições estatais e públicas sejam o</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
espelho da integridade e transparência na gestão da coisa pública, de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
modo a inspirar maior confiança no cidadão. Queremos uma cultura de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
responsabilização e prestação de contas dos dirigentes por forma a</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
que a que conquistem o respeito profundo do seu povo. Queremos</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
dirigentes que escutem os outros, mesmo quando a opinião desses</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
outros, não lhe for favorável. Exigirei do meu governo os valores do</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
humanismo, humildade, honestidade, integridade, transparência e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
tolerância.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Exigiremos maior proactividade e responsabilidade aos dirigentes,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
funcionários e agentes dos diferentes níveis dos órgãos locais do</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Estado.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Tomaremos, sem condescendência, medidas de responsabilização</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
contra a má conduta e actos de corrupção, favoritismo, nepotismo e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
clientelismo praticados por dirigentes, funcionários ou agentes do</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Estado em todos os escalões.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Não aceitaremos a violação deste contrato social firmado com o nosso</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
povo. Ninguém está acima da Lei e todos são iguais perante ela.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Intensificaremos ações de formação constante das Forças de Defesa</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
e Segurança, resgatando no seu seio os mais altos valores patrióticos,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
éticos, deontológicos e brio profissional. O combate à criminalidade,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
em particular o crime organizado será implacável de modo a que todo</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Cambria;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Cambria;"><div align="LEFT">
9</div>
</span><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
e qualquer cidadão, moçambicano ou estrangeiro, se sinta tranquilo e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
protegido.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Valorizaremos, enfim, o papel histórico dos veteranos da luta de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
libertação nacional e dos combatentes na defesa da soberania e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
integridade territorial de Moçambique.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Compatriotas,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
A criação de emprego, a construção de estradas, pontes e barragens,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
e o desenvolvimento rural constituirão um dos epicentros da acção do</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
meu Governo. Não descansarei enquanto não tiver um país sulcado</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
de vias de acesso transitáveis que assegurem, em todas as épocas do</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
ano, a circulação de pessoas e bens em todo o território nacional.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Vamos promover investimentos necessários que contribuam para o</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
melhoramento dos sistemas de transporte rodoviário, ferro-portuário,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
aéreo, marítimo e fluvial para garantir que qualquer cidadão viaje em</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
condições condignas e seguras, nas cidades e nas ligações interprovinciais</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
e inter-distritais.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Implementaremos estratégias para que cada família tanto nas zonas</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
urbanas e como rurais consiga melhorar as suas condições de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
habitação.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Incrementaremos o apoio às pequenas e médias empresas como</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
forma de alargar a criação de emprego e autoemprego dos</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
moçambicanos. Neste quadro priorizarei a participação massiva e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
activa da juventude e da mulher nos programas de desenvolvimento</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
económico e social.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Prosseguirei com a descentralização e a desconcentração de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
competências e de recursos para impulsionar o desenvolvimento</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
rápido das unidades territoriais, tanto urbanas como rurais.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Vamos apostar em programas e estratégias de desenvolvimento</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
baseados nos distritos e localidades, lá onde o nosso povo vive e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
coabita com os problemas reais, capitalizando as potencialidades e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
oportunidades de cada zona.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Cambria;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Cambria;"><div align="LEFT">
10</div>
</span><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
Quero que os Moçambicanos vivam num país cada vez mais</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
iluminado, muito para além das sedes distritais, com fontes de energia</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
diversificadas, com mais acesso à água potável e a infraestruturas de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
saneamento e que tenham o acesso universal às tecnologias de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
informação e comunicação.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Compatriotas,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Porque a agricultura é a base fundamental do nosso desenvolvimento,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
tal como define a CRM (Constituição da República de Moçambique), a</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
ela prestaremos atenção privilegiada da nossa governação.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Promoverei o aumento de investimentos públicos e privados à</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
agricultura, a pecuária e pesca. Uma atenção particular será dada ao</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
sector familiar, que sustenta a maioria da população moçambicana.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Prosseguirei políticas de incentivos aos camponeses que permitam</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
elevar a produção e a produtividade agrárias.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Apostaremos na industrialização da nossa agricultura. Moçambique,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
tem todas as condições para ser uma potência agrícola na região.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Intensificaremos a produção de alimentos e o seu acesso pelo cidadão</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
de modo a garantir a segurança alimentar e nutricional. A alimentação</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
condigna não deve constituir um privilégio. Ela é um direito humano</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
básico que assiste a todos os moçambicanos.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Teremos que utilizar as capacidades existentes, incluindo nas nossas</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
universidades, para promover a educação nutricional das</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
comunidades. Não podemos permitir que a desnutrição crónica</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
prevaleça lado a lado com a abundância alimentar, como acontece</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
ainda em algumas regiões do nosso país.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
A nossa aposta na consolidação das instituições do ensino, sociais e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
administrativas, tem como objectivo, entre outros, a produção, a</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
gestão e a promoção do conhecimento.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Queremos continuar a fortalecer a capacidade financeira do Estado</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
para investir mais na melhoria da qualidade de educação.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Cambria;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Cambria;"><div align="LEFT">
11</div>
</span><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
Continuaremos a expandir a rede escolar, para reduzir a distância</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
casa-escola e assegurar o apetrechamento em carteiras, bibliotecas e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
laboratórios e melhoria das condições de vida e de trabalho do</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
professor, principal referência da construção e instrução do Homem.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Para que a criação de novos empregos seja sustentável o meu</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
governo vai reforçar as instituições de ensino técnico profissional,.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Moçambique ainda enfrenta desafios no combate às doenças como a</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
malária, o HIV/SIDA e outras que constituem principais causas da</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
mortalidade em particular a materno-infantil.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Prosseguiremos com a construção de mais unidades sanitárias</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
dotadas de meios técnicos adequados de diagnóstico e tratamento.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Investiremos ainda mais na formação de médicos e outros</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
profissionais de saúde competentes e motivados para atender com</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
humanismo o nosso povo.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
O meu governo empenhar-se-á intensamente na proteção do</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
ambiente e na redução da vulnerabilidade do país por via do reforço</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
da capacidade nacional de prevenção e mitigação do impacto das</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
calamidades naturais e desastres humanos.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Neste novo ciclo de governação, a política externa do nosso Estado</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
continuará a ter como objectivo fazer mais amigos e a basear-se nos</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
princípios do respeito mútuo e da não ingerência nos assuntos</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
internos. Reforçaremos as relações de amizade e de cooperação com</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
outros Estados em particular os da região da SADC (Comunidade para</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
o Desenvolvimento da África Austral) e no contexto da União Africana,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
da CPLP (Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portuguesa), da</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
CommonWealth, da ONU (Organização das Nações Unidas e de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
outros organismos internacionais.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Respeitaremos os acordos bilaterais e multilaterais e as convenções</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
de que somos parte e reforçaremos a participação de Moçambique</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
nos esforços da Paz e do desenvolvimento internacional assegurando</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
a defesa dos mais altos interesses da Nação Moçambicana.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Caros compatriotas,</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Cambria;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Cambria;"><div align="LEFT">
12</div>
</span><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
Sei que o compromisso que acabo de assumir solenemente aqui e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
agora perante a nação e o mundo envolve grande responsabilidade,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
sacrifícios e trabalho árduo.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
De mãos dadas, caminhando juntos, unidos como irmãos podemos</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
construir um Moçambique melhor. Convido todo o Povo moçambicano</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
e os partidos políticos da oposição para, de forma patriótica e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
responsável, participarem no processo de fiscalização do novo ciclo</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
governativo para o bem e o desenvolvimento do pais.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Eu quero um povo com mais educação e saúde, que participa</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
activamente na tomada de decisões e na escolha de políticas públicas.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Quero que todos os moçambicanos sejam capazes de se fazer ouvir</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
independentemente de pertencer ou não a um partido. Essa é a ideia</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
profunda de inclusão que começa na cidadania plena de cada</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
moçambicano e no respeito pela pluralidade e diversidade de opiniões.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Cada um de nós deve se orgulhar de pertencer a uma Nação unitária</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
e indivisível, sem que para isso tenha que abdicar dos seus atributos e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
dos seus valores culturais próprios. Não existem os que são mais e os</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
que são menos moçambicanos. A bandeira multicolor que cobre todos</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
moçambicanos representa exactamente essa unidade na diversidade.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Reafirmo que o meu programa de governação se inspira nos</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
moçambicanos, para servir os moçambicanos! É um programa de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
mudança e uma razão de esperança.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
É isto que nós queremos: um governo que assente numa ética que</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
coloca a vida e a dignidade humana acima do lucro. Um programa que</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
coloque a saúde e a educação de qualidade acima de um poder de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
consumo ilusório.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Um governo que privilegie a paz, a paz e ainda a paz e promova o</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
diálogo acima de disputas domésticas pelo poder. Um governo que</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
privilegie a solidariedade, acima da competição desleal. Uma</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
governação que pensa nas gerações futuras e, por isso, entenda a</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
importância de agir ecologicamente na exploração dos recursos</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
naturais.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Cambria;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Cambria;"><div align="LEFT">
13</div>
</span><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
Nós somos capazes de continuar a mostrar ao mundo um</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Moçambique que melhora permanentemente o seu desempenho e a</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
sua imagem. Um Moçambique ainda mais saudado e respeitado pela</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
estabilidade política, pela qualidade dos seus recursos humanos, pelo</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
bom ambiente de negócios, pelo respeito pelos direitos humanos e de</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
propriedade, e pela equidade social e inclusão. Um Moçambique que</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
busca constantemente a afirmação da cidadania e da sua identidade</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
nacional a partir da diversidade cultural que nos caracteriza. Um</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Moçambique que respeita os seus heróis, glorifica a sua história,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
reconhece e valoriza os sacrifícios daqueles que consagraram as suas</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
vidas na luta de libertação nacional e na defesa de soberania.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Moçambicanas e Moçambicanos!</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Eu, cidadão Filipe Jacinto Nyusi, sou o Presidente de todos vós! Tudo</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
o que fizer e tudo o que farei será para que cada moçambicano se</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
sinta parte do processo de desenvolvimento nacional. Mais unidos,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
mais fortes e mais determinados construiremos uma nação que todos</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
celebramos como uma pertença comum.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Neste acto solene, reitero a todos vós, moçambicanas e</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
moçambicanos, no país e na diáspora, que dentro do meu coração</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
cabem todos os moçambicanos. Vamos, todos juntos, construir um</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
país à medida dos nossos sonhos.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;"><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: ArialMT; font-size: medium;">Maputo, 15 de Janeiro de 2015</span></span></span>NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-77273402927494879442015-01-19T00:24:00.000-08:002015-01-19T00:24:08.367-08:00Recepção Crítica do Discurso de Tomada de Posse do Presidente Nyusi - CIP<b><span style="font-family: Bookman Old Style,Bookman Old Style; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Bookman Old Style,Bookman Old Style; font-size: xx-small;">CENTRO DE INTEGRIDADE PÚBLICA MOÇAMBIQUE </span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Bookman Old Style,Bookman Old Style; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Bookman Old Style,Bookman Old Style; font-size: xx-small;">
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Futura Md BT,Futura Md BT; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Futura Md BT,Futura Md BT; font-size: small;">Edição Nº 13/2015 - Janeiro - Distribuição Gratuita </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Futura Md BT,Futura Md BT; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Futura Md BT,Futura Md BT; font-size: small;">
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: Gill Sans MT,Gill Sans MT;"><span style="font-family: Gill Sans MT,Gill Sans MT;">Recepção Crítica do Discurso de Tomada de Posse do Presidente Nyusi </span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Gill Sans MT,Gill Sans MT;"><span style="font-family: Gill Sans MT,Gill Sans MT;">
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: medium;">O discurso proferido pelo Presidente da República, Filipe Jacinto Nyusi, na cerimónia da sua investidura para o cargo do mais alto magistrado da Nação, vai ao encontro de muitos anseios de moçambicanos. É, na essência, um discurso que tem como mérito o facto de ter conseguido identificar e expressar as reais aspirações da maioria dos moçambicanos. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: medium;">
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: medium;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
O Presidente da República prometeu uma governação inclusiva, participativa, de reconciliação nacional, que prima pela integridade, transparência, profissionalismo, meritocracia, sem qualquer tipo de discriminação. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
O Centro de Integridade Pública (CIP), instituição que tem como objectivo a materialização dos princípios de transparência, integridade, boa governação, na gestão da coisa pública, acolheu com satisfação o discurso do Presidente da República, a quem, por isso, saúda e reafirma a sua disponibilidade para trabalhar em prol da efectivação destes princípios. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Tal como vem sendo ao longo dos 10 anos da sua existência, o trabalho do CIP continuará a ser a fiscalização da governação e, neste contexto, congratulamo-nos com o compromisso assumido pelo Chefe de Estado de constituir e chefiar um governo baseado nos "valores do humanismo, humildade, honestidade, integridade, transparência e tolerância", </div>
</span><br /></span><b><i><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"></span></span></i></b><br />
<b><i><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;">Intolerante com a corrupção <br />
</span><br /></span><br /></i><br /></b><i><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"></span></span></i><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
No seu discurso de tomada de posse, Nyusi referiu que o governo que por ele será formado e dirigido terá que ser intolerante para com a corrupção. No entanto, é importante lembrar que o seu antecessor, Armando Guebuza, também apresentou no seu programa de governação, iniciado em 2005, e aquando do segundo mandato em 2010, que o combate à corrupção seria um assunto de atenção especial, um pilar do seu governo. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Contudo, ao fim dos dois mandatos em que liderou o Estado e governo verificou-se que o combate às manifestações e práticas de corrupção não foi prioridade na sua governação, atendendo que as estatísticas apresentadas, tanto a nível nacional (Gabinete Central de Combate à Corrupção e a 2ª Pesquisa Nacional sobre Governação e Combate a Corrupção), como a nível internacional (índices de percepção da corrupção da Transparência Internacional). Ao longo dos dois mandados passados, a corrupção mostrou uma tendência assustadoramente crescente, com o Estado à saque pelas elites políticas e gestores públicos seniores, perante o silêncio conivente do Ministério Público e do Tribunal Administrativo. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Apesar da clara falta de vontade política de Armando Guebuza em combater a corrupção, há que assinalar que houve avanços legislativos anticorrupção durante o seu mandato, sendo a submissão e início da aprovação do Pacote Legislativo anticorrupção o seu marco importante. Contudo, de harmonia com a falta de vontade política, não há implementação efectiva das leis já aprovadas. A título de exemplo, é importante referir que o Plano de Implementação da Legislação Anticorrupção (PILAC) ainda não foi concluído e que, por isso, existe ainda um atraso na sua aplicação. </div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><div align="CENTER">
2 </div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Porque a melhor liderança é aquela que se dá pelo exemplo, encorajamos o Presidente Nyusi a estrear o recentemente aprovado modelo de declaração de bens para apresentar a sua declaração de património nos prazos prescritos pela Lei de Probidade Pública, como o primeiro compromisso que deve demonstrar ao pretender imprimir a transparência como princípio estruturante da sua governação. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
No que tange aos órgãos de administração de Justiça, que segundo o novo presidente dever-se-ão nortear, na sua actuação, pela observância pelo mérito e profissionalismo, é importante realçar que o principal desafio que se coloca tem a ver com a aplicação da referida legislação sem que se tenha em conta a qualidade dos infractores. Isto é, que as leis anticorrupção aprovadas sejam aplicadas a todos os cidadãos envolvidos nos crimes que as mesmas prevêem, sejam os mesmos da baixa, média ou exercendo funções de topo no aparelho do Estado ou entidades privadas. Aliás, Nyusi vincou que ninguém está acima da lei. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
"Não aceitaremos a violação deste contrato social firmado com o nosso povo. Ninguém está acima da Lei e todos são iguais perante ela", p. 11. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Neste sentido, é de esperar que sejam esclarecidos os casos de corrupção mediatizados que transitaram do mandato anterior. Por exemplo, o Caso INSS – Instituto Nacional de Segurança Social; o Caso CC – Conselho Constitucional e o Caso do Comando Geral da Polícia. Aliás esta seria uma acção visando responsabilizar a má conduta e actos de corrupção, favoritismo, nepotismo e clientelismo praticados por dirigentes, funcionários ou agentes do Estado em todos os escalões. Significa que existe a percepção de que os órgãos de administração da justiça devem combater as práticas acima referidas com equidistância da qualidade dos sujeitos envolvidos, dado que pouco disto se viu nos mandatos anteriores. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
O discurso do presidente Nyusi aludiu ainda à necessidade do fortalecimento da integridade e transparência na gestão da coisa pública. Este discurso deverá ser acompanhado de acções concretas que permitam o controlo eficiente dos recursos do Estado, o que pressupõe a criação de mecanismos eficazes de prestação de contas por parte dos funcionários públicos e a sua, consequente responsabilização em caso de violação dos seus deveres previstos na lei e nos demais instrumentos que regem a sua conduta enquanto depositários e gestores de fundos públicos. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
A inexistência dos referidos mecanismos e a não responsabilização dos funcionários conduziu ao surgimento de inúmeros casos ligados ao desvio de fundos e uso abusivo de bens do Estado ao longo do mandato do antigo Presidente da República, Armando Guebuza, o que a imprensa reportou em diversas ocasiões. Estamos a falar do controle interno no sector público que não foi prioridade nos mandatos de Armando Guebuza. </div>
</span><br /></span><b><i><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"></span></span></i></b><br />
<b><i><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;">Transparência <br />
</span><br /></span><br /></i><br /></b><i><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"></span></span></i><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
O Presidente da República deu ênfase à transparência na governação. Prometeu transparência das "instituições e dos agentes públicos" e na "gestão da coisa pública": </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
"... Necessitamos de construir consensos, necessitamos de partilhar, sem receio, informação sobre as grandes decisões a serem tomadas pelo meu Governo", p. 9. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
O CIP acolheu com satisfação este compromisso do presidente com a transparência. Entendemos que a transparência é um valor fundamental da democracia, sem a qual todos os outros valores do Estado de Direito e Democrático ficam comprometidos. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Ao longo da última década de governação, Moçambique teve uma indisfarçável avidez por transparência. Diferentes negócios do Estado foram conduzidos de forma oculta, deixando os moçambicanos sem saber a razão de ser das decisões tomadas. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Na indústria extractiva, por exemplo, legislação importante foi adoptada e reformada sem a participação e conhecimento profundo dos cidadãos; contratos de concessão, pesquisa e exploração de recursos naturais foram assinados e implementados longe do conhecimento dos moçambicanos. Na verdade, o governo escondeu dos moçambicanos o conteúdo destes contratos e mesmo quando houve pressão social para a sua publicação, apenas fê-lo de forma selectiva. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: medium;">3 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: medium;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
As Parcerias Público Privadas (PPP), instrumento de realização do bem público, foram, ao longo dos últimos anos, usadas pela elite política e burocrática do Estado para a promoção de fins privados em detrimento do interesse público. Assistiu-se à institucionalização do conflito de interesses e do tráfico de influências por parte dos dirigentes públicos. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
A transparência na gestão das PPP, como em toda a gestão da administração pública, é passo fundamental para acabar com as práticas nocivas que fomos assistindo ao longo dos últimos governos. Quando se fala da transparência ou falta dela vem à memória o maior caso de má governação: o negócio da EMATUM que ainda não foi devidamente esclarecido. Vale a pena lembrar que este caso ocorreu quando V. Ex.ª era Ministro da Defesa Nacional, uma instituição que desempenhou papel chave no caso. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
O CIP defende que, sem prejuízo do seu urgente esclarecimento, este tipo de negócios obscuros, realizados pelo Estado, usando recursos de todos os moçambicanos, deve passar para a história e a promessa da transparência poderá ser um passo gigante nesse sentido. O CIP saúda e encoraja o compromisso presidencial com a transparência. Entretanto, lembra que a transparência só será alcançada se houver ruptura efectiva com as práticas que marcaram a última década da governação. </div>
</span><br /></span><b><i><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"></span></span></i></b><br />
<b><i><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;">Fiscalização <br />
</span><br /></span><br /></i><br /></b><i><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"></span></span></i><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
O discurso inaugural do Presidente da República também apelou a todos os moçambicanos a fiscalizar a governação. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
"Convido todo o Povo moçambicano e os partidos políticos da oposição para, de forma patriótica e responsável, participarem no processo de fiscalização do novo ciclo governativo para o bem e o desenvolvimento do país", p. 17. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
O CIP dedica-se à fiscalização da acção governativa nas diferentes vertentes. Ficamos, por isso, satisfeitos ao ouvir o convite público do Presidente para a fiscalização da sua governação. Reafirmamos que o CIP continuará a perseguir o seu objectivo de fiscalização governativa porque, essa é a sua razão de ser. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Queremos, no entanto, lembrar que a fiscalização da governação exige do próprio governo a abertura suficiente para disponibilização de informação, pois a omissão da mesma, como se assistiu na última década, não permite que se possa contribuir para a melhoria da governação, através de uma fiscalização eficaz. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
A título de exemplo, ao longo do ano passado no exercício da nossa acção fiscalizadora solicitámos os relatórios de contas da Empresa Pública Electricidade de Moçambique (EDM), e não nos foram disponibilizados; solicitámos à Autoridade Tributária a relação de impostos pagos pela SASOL num determinado período e nos foi recusado; solicitámos à Direcção Nacional de Registos e Notariado, dados sobre os casamentos entre nacionais estrangeiros e nos foi igualmente negado; solicitámos ao Ministério dos Transportes e Comunicações cópias de contratos da concessão de negócios importantes no sector e recebemos o silêncio como resposta; solicitámos às Alfandegas de Moçambique os dados de importações de veículos dos partidos políticos que beneficiaram de isenções aduaneiras e a resposta foi negativa. O ponto mais alto do "fechamento" do Governo ao escrutínio público aconteceu em 2013 quando o então Governador de Niassa, David Malizane, impediu ao CIP e seu parceiro local o acesso aos governos distritais</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<sup><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: xx-small;">1 </span></span></sup><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;">para a realização do trabalho de rastreio da despesa pública que é do interesse público. </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Trazemos este curto rol de exemplo para ilustrar o quão difícil foi o acesso à informação relevante do Estado ao longo dos últimos anos. Por isso, à medida que nos congratulamos com a abertura prometida pelo Chefe de Estado para que o seu Governo seja fiscalizado, recordamos que a mesma só será efectivada se acompanhada de acesso à informação relevante da sua acção pelos cidadãos e organizações da sociedade civil. Afirmar abertura para fiscalização enquanto instituições públicas continuarem a sonegar informação relevante ao público, seria um exercício de retórica despido de conteúdo fáctico. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Uma efectiva fiscalização ocorre apenas quando o governo não fica em silêncio perante questões trazidas pela sociedade no seu sentido amplo e pela </div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
1 Note-se que em conformidade com a Lei 8/2003, os Governos Distritais, salvaguardada a hierarquia estabelecida por lei, são autónomos dos Governos Provinciais. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;">4 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;">sociedade civil, em particular. Esta foi uma nota dominante na última década. Abertura à fiscalização não se compadece com governação pelo silêncio. Relatórios da sociedade civil apresentados casos da mais alta importância eram simplesmente ignorados pelo poder público e os titulares dos órgãos visados mantinham os seus postos. Por exemplo, a menos de dois meses, em Dezembro de 2014, o CIP apresentou um estudo sobre a Electricidade de Moçambique (EDM) no qual mostrava que a Empresa Pública tinha deixado de prestar o serviço público para qual foi constituída e transformou-se numa agência de adjudicação de negócios do sector da electricidade para empresas ligadas às elites políticas e económicas do país, prejudicando, por isso, os moçambicanos que deviam ser beneficiários dos serviços da empresa. O poder público ficou em silêncio. <br />
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Em 2013, o CIP apresentou um estudo sobre a SASOL onde mostrava que o primeiro grande projecto de extracção de gás natural implementado no país, não havia rendimento absolutamente nenhum para o Estado, devido ao excesso de isenções fiscais e à venda do gás natural muito abaixo do preço do mercado. Perante a indignação da sociedade, o poder público ficou em silêncio provavelmente para nos desanimar. Mas não desanimamos. A Luta Continua! </div>
</span><br /></span><b><i><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"></span></span></i></b><br />
<b><i><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;">Redução de Custos e Despesismo <br />
</span><br /></span><br /></i><br /></b><i><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"></span></span></i><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: large;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
A redução de custos e despesismo é um dos vectores de governação arrolados pelo Presidente da República. O ex-presidente, Armando Guebuza iniciou funções em 2005 ecoando o mesmo chavão, por exemplo, reuniões de ministérios eram realizadas em salas de aulas de escolas públicas para a contenção de custos. Isto foi aplaudido por muitos Moçambicanos mas, ao fim de 10 anos, Guebuza deixa um legado de despesismo e níveis de divida púbicas (externa e interna) não só insustentáveis mas também resultantes de prioridades questionáveis e, sobretudo, num quadro de total falta de transparência. O caso EMATUM é, mais uma vez, o exemplo paradigmático. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Senhor Presidente, o despesismo foi, ao longo da última década, o meio facilitador da expropriação do Estado para benefício ilícito da elite política e dirigente do Estado em prejuízo do interesse público. Os conflitos de interesse entre o público e o privado que tiveram no ex-chefe de Estado, Armando Guebuza, a sua figura emblemática, são a face mais visível da utilização do Estado como meio privado, das elites politicas, para acumulação de riqueza para ostentação e consumo. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Em jeito de conclusão, hoje, Domingo, dia 18 de Janeiro, Senhor Presidente, fazemos uma recepção crítica ao seu discurso de tomada de posse – um discurso satisfatório porque o legado deixado pelo seu antecessor em matérias de transparência, combate à corrupção, parcimónia na gestão do erário público, independência dos poderes públicos para o controle interinstitucional em que assenta a boa governação deixa a desejar – mas a partir de amanhã, segunda-feira, dia 19 de Janeiro, estaremos a monitorar e fiscalizar. Fazendo este importante trabalho para o desenvolvimento do nosso país, fomos rotulados no passado. Temos esperança porque, no seu discurso, o Senhor Presidente prometeu que: "... Queremos dirigentes que escutem os outros, mesmo quando a opinião desses outros, não lhe for favorável...".</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: medium;">5 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: medium;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Futura Md BT,Futura Md BT;"><span style="font-family: Futura Md BT,Futura Md BT;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Futura Md BT,Futura Md BT;"><span style="font-family: Futura Md BT,Futura Md BT;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Boa Governação, Transparência e Integridade </div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: Myriad Pro Light,Myriad Pro Light; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Myriad Pro Light,Myriad Pro Light; font-size: small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Myriad Pro Light,Myriad Pro Light; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Myriad Pro Light,Myriad Pro Light; font-size: small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Parceiros </div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;">FICHA TÉCNICA <br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;">Director</span></span></b><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"><br /></span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;">: Adriano Nuvunga </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;">
</span></span><b><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;">Equipa Técnica do CIP: </span></span></b><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"><br /></span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;">Baltazar Fael; Fátima Mimbire; Lázaro Mabunda; Borges Nhamire; Stélio Bila; Edson Cortez; Jorge Matine; Ben Hur Cavelane; Teles Ribeiro; Nélia Nhacume </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;">
</span></span><b><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;">Layout & Montagem</span></span></b><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"><br /></span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;">: Nelton Gemo </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;">
</span></span><b><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;">Endereço</span></span></b><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"><br /></span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;">: Bairro da Coop, Rua B, Número 79, Maputo - Moçambique </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;">
</span></span><b><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;">Contactos</span></span></b><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro Smbd,Arno Pro Smbd; font-size: small;"><br /></span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;">: Fax: 00 258 21 41 66 25, Tel: 00 258 21 41 66 16, Cel: (+258) 82 301 6391, </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: small;">E-mail: cip@cip.org.mz <br />
<br />
Website: http://www.cip.org.mz <br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arno Pro,Arno Pro; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Parceiro </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
de assuntos </div>
<br />
de género: </span></span>NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-19244738786275310672015-01-18T12:10:00.001-08:002015-01-18T12:10:52.875-08:00Diário de um sociólogo: Dados sobre os novos governantes<a href="http://oficinadesociologia.blogspot.com/2015/01/dados-sobre-os-novos-governantes.html?m=1">Diário de um sociólogo: Dados sobre os novos governantes</a>NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-79898767873596934162015-01-16T11:07:00.001-08:002015-01-16T11:07:20.195-08:00Manuel de Araujo: A APINIAO DE ARAO DAVA SOBRE OBAMA<a href="http://manueldearaujo.blogspot.com/2008/11/apiniao-de-arao-dava-sobre-obama.html">Manuel de Araujo: A APINIAO DE ARAO DAVA SOBRE OBAMA</a>NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-57508817702894015182015-01-16T11:00:00.000-08:002015-01-16T11:00:00.974-08:00Meu texto publicado no blog do meu amigo Manuel de AraujoSão 7.15, dou um beijo de despedida ao meu querido filho que insiste que devo
ficar com ele por mais um tempo, apetece me mesmo ficar em casa com o puto, mas
Job não entende isso. Reúno coragem, despeço do puto que desata a chorar, mesmo
assim tenho que ir...entro no carro ligo radio, por sinal era a BBC no ar,
escuto algumas notícias, não entendo nada (ainda penso no puto) mas insisto em
continuar a ouvir esse canal. Era a voz o meu amigo Eleutério Guevane, que viro
Leo, continuei a ouvir só para matar saudades da voz dele...Depois
começa a lição de inglês, mudo de canal para a RM. Já estava na habitual bicha
para atravessar a ponte Samora Machel, sobre o rio Zambeze na cidade de Tete. O
cronista Arune Valy, cantava a crónica dele sobre a cidade da Beira, mistura de
frases com muito lixo e mau cheiro a mistura, enfim a crónica não tinha mínima
piada parecia forçada, mas resisti ate ao fim...e no fim o Emílio Manhique
anuncia que o Café da Manha seria servido a partir da Beira...fiquei
satisfeito.<br /><br />Continuava a espera da minha vez para atravessar, enquanto
isso me deliciava com o Café. O moderador faz uma interessante resenha histórica
da cidade da Beira...e depois introduz uma selecção de preocupações do cidadãos
da cidade da Beira...o café estava nice, mas o moderador se tinha esquecido de
informar os números de telefone através dos quais os ouvinte iriam participar, o
Manhique não se fez de rogado e lembrou ao moderador... O Manhique só se lembrou
desse detalhe porque o espertalhão do Gabriel Mufundisse conseguiu furar, acho
que o Mufundisse participa em todos os programa interactivos do pais e tem
contactos que lhe facilitam o acesso.<br /><br />Quando o Mufundisse entrou em linha
já estava eu no meio da ponte, normalmente quando atravesso a ponte, não me
permito aborrecimentos, a brisa da ponte é muito agradavel... mas o Mufundisse
conseguiu... ligou para aconselhar ao Daviz Simango para não concorrer as
presidenciais. ..sobre a Beira, nem uma palavra...pensei, será que o Mufundisse
é cidadão ou é apenas pessoa, ou simplesmente não tinha assunto...pouco depois
liga o Vitorino Mazuze, este até felicitou a Beira, mas imediatamente acusou ao
Daviz de abandonar aos citadinos e até de ser ambicioso... embrulhei- o e
coloquei-o no mesmo saco onde antes tinha colocado o Gabriel Mufundisse, so não
mudei de canal porque ainda tinha esperança de que isso iria passar. Pensei cá
para mim, há pessoas que de tanto ligarem para as rádios começam e a repetir as
opiniões em relação a todos os assuntos. São pessoas que logo que se anuncia o
nome ja sabemos o que vão dizer. Isto ja está a fartar e a sua voz já começa a
fazer mudar de canal...Pensei que tudo tinha acabado, mas não, liga um outro
individuo cujo nome não registei e desata a insultar aos primeiros acusando os
de terem opiniões encomendadas. Quer dizer aqui as pessoas não podem ter
opiniões...um posicionamento significa encomenda ou Peixe com
legumes.<br /><br />Tenho direito de na radio publica ouvir outros assuntos para
alem de politica, partidos, eleições...mas ha grupos que não permitem que isso
aconteça porque imediatamente acusam e ou atacam sob ponto de vista
politico...Os espaço para debate publico estão a ser tomados por pequenos grupos
que...desta vez porque ainda tenho essa liberdade... desliguei radio e ligue um
CD, era musica 13 musica "Dadinha yo, Dadinha Tombi, wa mbilu yanga" de falecido
Macuacua.<br /><br />A esta velha, digana e respeitosa cidade da Beira os meus
parabens!NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-4359929709844286582015-01-16T10:55:00.000-08:002015-01-16T10:55:09.298-08:00Crise do paradigma liberal ou emergência de novo paradigma Arão Dava, 2008<br />
<br />A crise dos
EUA, pegou de surpresa mesmo aos mais atentos analistas das Relações
Internacionais. As questões que me incomoda é, estaremos perante a crise do
paradigma liberal? Ou estaremos perante a emergência de um novo paradigma?
<br /><br />O paradigma constitui um pressuposto filosófico, matriz, ou seja, um
conhecimento que origina o estudo de um campo científico; uma realização
científica com métodos e valores que são concebidos como modelo; uma referência
inicial como base de modelo para estudos e pesquisas. <br /><br />As várias áreas de
conhecimento, incluindo as Relações Internacionais, tomaram de empréstimo o
conceito paradigma, do físico americano Thomas Kuhn, (1922 - 1996), celebre por
suas contribuições à história e filosofia da ciência em especial do processo
(revoluções) que leva a evolução do desenvolvimento científico, designou como
paradigmáticas as realizações científicas que geram modelos que, por período
mais ou menos longo e de modo mais ou menos explícito, orientam o
desenvolvimento posterior das pesquisas exclusivamente na busca da solução para
os problemas por elas suscitados. <br /><br />No livro “A estrutura das Revoluções
Científicas”, Tomas Kuhn apresenta a concepção de que “um paradigma, é aquilo
que os membros de uma comunidade partilham e, inversamente, uma comunidade
científica consiste em homens que partilham um paradigma”, p. 219 e define “o
estudo dos paradigmas como o que prepara basicamente o estudante para ser membro
da comunidade científica na qual actuará mais tarde”, p. 31. <br /><br />Desde os
finais da década de 80 do século passado, a democracia liberal e o capitalismo,
vinham sendo tidos como dominantes, isto é, paradigmas, sob ponto de vista
ideológico, académico e político-econó mico e militar. Quer dizer que a
democracia liberal e o capitalismo eram promovido sobretudo por académicos e
lideres políticos ocidentais, como únicas alternativas ao desenvolvimento e às
relações internacionais. Uma das manifestações mais emblemáticas dessa ofensiva
foi, a publicação em 1989 do artigo, "O fim da história" e, posteriormente,
lançamento do livro “O fim da história e o último homem”, em 1992, ambos do
norte-americano Francis Fukuyama. O esforço principal de Fukuyama, foi o de
tentar elaborar uma linha de abordagem da história, indo de Platão a Nietzsche e
passando por Kant e Hegel, a fim de revigorar a tese de que o capitalismo e a
democracia burguesa constituem o ponto mais alto da evolução da história da
humanidade, ou seja, de que a humanidade teria atingido, no final do século XX,
o ponto culminante de sua evolução com o triunfo da democracia liberal ocidental
sobre todos os demais sistemas e ideologias concorrentes. <br /><br />Tal como
defendeu Fukuyama, o sec passado viu, primeiramente, a destruição do fascismo e,
em seguida, do socialismo, que fora o grande adversário do capitalismo e do
liberalismo no pós-guerra. O mundo teria assistido ao fim e ao descrédito dessas
duas alternativas globais, restando apenas, actualmente, em oposição à proposta
capitalista liberal, resíduos de nacionalismo, sem possibilidade de significarem
um projecto para a humanidade, e o fundamentalismo islâmico, confinado ao
Oriente e a países periféricos. Assim, com a derrocada do socialismo, Fukuyama
conclui que a democracia liberal ocidental firmou-se como a solução final do
governo humano, significando, nesse sentido, o "fim da história" da humanidade.
<br /><br />Ao que parece a abordagem histórica de Francis Fukuyama foi precipitada
na medida em que, recorrendo a Platão a Nietzsche e passando por Kant e Hegel
ignorou outras realidades, como diria mais tarde em reacção, Samuel P.
Huntington na obra, Choque de civilizações. Basicamente segundo Huntington as
identidades culturais e religiosas dos povos serão a principal fonte de conflito
no mundo pós-Guerra Fria. <br /><br />Aliás para Huntigton <br /><br /><br />Minha
hipótese é que a fonte fundamental de conflitos neste mundo novo não será
principalmente ideológica ou económica. As grandes divisões entre a humanidade e
a fonte dominante de conflitos será cultural. Os Estados-nações continuarão a
ser os actores mais poderosos no cenário mundial, mas os principais conflitos da
política global ocorrerão entre países e grupos de diferentes civilizações. O
choque de civilizações dominará a política global. As falhas geológicas entre
civilizações serão as frentes de combate do futuro.( Cópia oficial (em inglês):
The Clash of Civilizations?, Foreign Affairs, verão de 1993 <br /><br />Os resíduos
do nacionalismo e o fundamentalismo, apontados por Fukuyama como “oposição
insignificante ao capitalismo liberal”, constituem hoje ameaças significantes
com fortes possibilidades resultarem no chamado Spillover effect podendo
aumentar o número de adeptos. Não seria dificil encontrar exemplos de
nacionalismos e fundamentalismos que constituem grande ameaça para os EUA, basta
olhar para os casos da Venezuela, Coreia do Norte, Irão, Afeganistão notaremos
que outras alternativas ao capitalismo liberal são tidas em conta e defendidas
como valores em muitos cantos do globo. <br /><br />Mas o propósito deste artigo,
não é certamente discutir as falhas de Huntigton ou de Fukuyama. Mas responder a
questão, estaremos perante a crise do paradigma liberal? Ou estaremos perante a
emergência de um novo paradigma? A resposta tem como base alguns sinais no
sistema internacional. <br /><br /><br />- A “mão invisível “ está demasiado
descontrolada de tal forma que ela começa a tomar conta da liberdade económica e
politica do indivíduo, isto é, o indivíduo perde a sua liberdade a favor do
mercado. Se a idéia da mão invisível é melhor a situação por exemplo dos pobres
numa economia equilibrada e sustentável, tal não está a acontecer. <br /><br />- O
modelo escolhido e defendido pelo China está a aumentar a sua legitimidade como
alternativa, na medida em que, por exemplo actual crise norte americana não
teria os mesmo efeitos na China, ja que as empresas estratégicas estão nas maos
do Estado e são contraladas. <br /><br />- A solução encontrada pelo ocidente no
geral é nacionalizar ou subsidiar aos bancos em falência, ora este é o modo de
agir típico do socialismo. <br /><br /><br />Estes cenários meramente económicos estão
a encontrar suporte em outros domínios que afectam as democracias liberais como
são os casos : <br /><br /><br />- Crise da oposição – Em vários países começa a ser
tomada a sério a possibilidade de existência pelo menos na pratica de apenas um
partido governante sem possibilidade de alternativa e alternancia. Moçambique,
Angola e Africa do sul, são exemplo claros da fragilização de oposição e da
transformação do partido dominante em partido nacional. <br /><br />- Referencia da
Russia – A Russia reaparece no cenario politico internacional como mais um poder
desafiante ao centro. A invasão ao Geogia e exercicios militares com a
Venezuela, o apoio militar a Etiopia são sinais que claramente desafiam o
ocidente, sobretudo os EUA. <br /><br />- O crescimento económico da China.
<br /><br /><br /><br />A minha hipóteses é de que estamos perante a emergência de um
novo paradima, ideológico que ira orientar o mundo sob ponto de vista
ideológico. <br /><br />Não sei como chamarei este paradigma, novo mas certamente,
que agora sim, chegamos ao fim da história, na sequência de um casamento entre o
capitalismo e o socialismo – mais ou menos no estilo chinês. Nada será como
antes.NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-74420251020068942212015-01-16T10:46:00.002-08:002015-01-16T10:46:31.946-08:00Emerging Models of Community Engagement in the Australian Minerals Industry <div align="LEFT">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Emerging Models of Community Engagement in the Australian Minerals Industry </span></b></div>
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span></b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Authors: </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Harvey, Bruce: Chief Adviser Aboriginal and Community Relations, Rio Tinto Australia </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Brereton, David: Director, Centre for Social Responsibility in Mining, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.</div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">1 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
This paper was presented at the International Conference on Engaging Communities, 14-17 August 2005, Brisbane: an initiative of the United Nations and the Queensland Government. </div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
ABSTRACT </div>
</span><br /></b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Traditionally, the community involvement of most Australian mining companies was largely unplanned or, in the case of purpose built towns associated with new operations in remote areas, primarily focussed on infrastructure provision. To a large extent community interaction, whilst unavoidable, was considered secondary to the technical business of running a mine. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Over the last several years however, there has been a concerted drive within the sector to change how mines interact with their communities. Most companies have made public commitments to engage on a much more informed basis with affected communities and other stakeholders on matters of mutual concern. A variety of formal and informal consultative processes have been established at the local level, and a growing number of operations are adopting formal community relations systems. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The primary business drivers for this enhanced attention to community engagement are a desire to better manage social risks and to achieve competitive advantage through self-regulation, community and employee endorsement, and reduced financial volatility. Progressive companies are adopting a sophisticated array of business systems to ensure their consistent attention and delivery in the social arena. </div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Introduction </div>
</span><br /></b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
This paper provides an overview of current trends in community engagement in the Australian mining industry with particular reference to the experience of Rio Tinto Australia. It begins by identifying the main drivers of change, proceeds to describe Rio Tinto’s model for engaging with communities and associated performance assessment and assurance processes, and then illustrates deployment by reference to Rio Tinto’s involvement in the East Kimberley region of Western Australia. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
It should be noted that while the terms community and stakeholder are frequently used interchangeably in public commentary, they are not synonymous. In the mining industry the term ‘community’ is generally applied to the inhabitants of immediate and surrounding areas who are affected in some way by a company’s activities; these effects may be economic and social as well as environmental in nature. ‘Stakeholders’, on the other hand, are "those who have an interest in a particular decision, either as individuals or representatives of a group. Including people who influence a decision, or can influence it, as well as those affected by it". Stakeholders include non-government organisations, governments, shareholders and employees, as well as local community members (Minerals Council of Australia 2004; Ministerial Council on Mineral and Petroleum Resources 2004). </div>
</span><br /></span><sup><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></sup><br />
<sup><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
1 The authors gratefully acknowledge Rio Tinto for permission to publish and present this paper and point out that it represents the work and views of many colleagues. In particular, Professor Glynn Cochrane, recently retired from Rio Tinto, is acknowledged as the prime architect of Rio Tinto’s Community Relations Framework. While the authors have relied on the work of colleagues in preparing this paper, they bear sole responsibility for the views, arguments and analysis presented.</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></sup><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
About Rio Tinto </div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Rio Tinto was formed in 1995 by the merging, under a dual listed companies structure, of the Australian based CRA Limited and the United Kingdom based The RTZ Corporation plc. The Group is headquartered in London, has a corporate office in Melbourne, and has operations in some 20 different countries worldwide. Some 61% of its assets are in Australia and New Zealand. The company is predominantly engaged in the mining and smelting of minerals and metals and is a major producer of iron ore, coal, copper, diamonds, borax and aluminium. It also produces substantial volumes of gold, nickel, zinc, titanium oxide, uranium and industrial salt (<u>http://www.riotinto.com/</u>). </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The Group’s operating companies in Australia are Hamersley Iron, Robe Iron, Argyle Diamond Mine, Three Springs Talc and Dampier Salt in Western Australia; Ranger Uranium in the Northern Territory; Coal & Allied and North Parkes Copper in New South Wales; Rio Tinto Coal Australia and Comalco Aluminium in Queensland, plus Comalco’s smelter in Tasmania. For the sake of convenience all references will be to Rio Tinto, although clearly much of the experience, learning and acknowledgment lies with its operating company, both within Australia and elsewhere in the world. </div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
The Business Case for Community Engagement </div>
</span><br /></b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
The last thirty years have seen political and economic developments that have dramatically changed the world and the minerals industry. For miners, above all, changed public expectations of corporate environmental and social performance have driven the industry to reassess what it takes to be competitive in a global economy (IIED 2002). </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
In times past, mining companies, particularly those operating in frontier situations, tended to function as closed systems, largely insulated from the influence of public opinion. This was epitomised by the purpose-built mining town, where the company was the dominant employer, owned and provided most of the services (including housing), and managed the town as an essential element of the mine’s production system. In this setting, companies were able to control and predict most variables affecting their operation, right down to issues of community administration. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Today, by contrast, mines must increasingly operate as open systems. This shift in focus is attributable to the intersection of a number of factors, including heightened stakeholder and community expectations, the glare of global scrutiny, the demise of the traditional mining town, and the growing influence of concepts such as ‘corporate social responsibility’, ‘sustainable development’ and ‘triple bottom line’. Whereas central governments previously regulated the mining industry with little direct community involvement, communities have now become active participants in the process. In this emerging ‘tri-polar’ governance landscape, government remains a provider of mandate and a regulator, but communities now frequently represent themselves when dealing with business, whether through public forums, delegate bodies or the agency of Non Government Organisations (NGOs). This, in turn, has meant that corporate entities are now obliged to develop direct relationships with local community and local government, and are increasingly pushed to do so by communities with access to the communication and transactional enablers that are driving globalisation. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
A critical challenge for companies operating in this new environment is to articulate a persuasive business rationale for enhancing corporate community capabilities. Companies are profit-making entities which need to be able to show that the activities in which they are engaged add value to the organisation. Unless corporate managers can show that there will be a return to the organisation from investing time and resources in voluntarily improving corporate social performance, they will be reluctant to make such an investment, especially if it involves substantial additional costs. Likewise, financial markets are unlikely to look favourably on companies that are considered to be under-performing financially, regardless of how well they might score in terms of corporate social responsibility. </div>
</span><br /></span><br />
Page 2 <br />
<sup><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman;"></span></sup><br />
<sup><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman;">2 </span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">Increasingly, companies are also competing for staff. Arguably, one of the major attractors for staff, and it appears increasingly so for ‘generation Y’, is the ethical performance and reputation of the firm they work for. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
We do not mean to suggest that companies are – or should be – oblivious to moral concerns. When it comes to health and safety, for example, companies clearly have an ethical –and not just a legal – responsibility to protect their employees and surrounding communities from harm. Similarly, the basic human rights of people in affected communities need to be respected not just because this is good business, but because it is ‘the right thing to do’. However, relying solely, or even primarily, on values-based justifications is unlikely to be sufficient to embed good community practices throughout a company, particularly in those areas where the moral imperatives are not as stark. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Within the minerals industry, a key driver for companies to improve their community engagement practices has been the desire to reduce the community risks associated with current and planned operations and smooth the path for obtaining access to new resources (Humphrey 2000, 2001; Brereton 2002). This is often expressed in terms of the imperative for companies and the industry more generally, to protect their social - as well as their legal – ‘licence to operate’. The time taken to plan, finance, insure and regulate any operation has increased substantially in the past few decades, particularly in the case of large-scale mines; in these circumstances, developing better community engagement processes has the potential to deliver real financial returns for a company. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Leading companies in the industry, Rio Tinto included, are now striving for competitive advantage in the communities arena, with the aim of becoming the ‘developer of choice’ for communities and governments, improving the corporate risk profile of the company and securing access to capital on more favourable terms.</div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">2 </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;">This, in turn, has involved a shift away from the traditional narrow focus of companies on protecting corporate strategic assets, to a broader focus on developing a ‘sustainability capability’. </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
When it comes to strategic assets of any kind, the returns and the wealth that are generated will generally be fought over by different stakeholder groups. This is certainly true in the mining industry. Most ore bodies of any real value have at some stage been targets for attempted ‘misappropriation’ or ‘ransom’. This has frequently taken the form of nationalisation by sovereign governments, withholding of sanction by powerful stakeholders, or a challenge to specific minerals tenure by opportunists. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
In jurisdictions where mining is governed by enforceable statute, the sovereign guarantee itself becomes the strategic asset and payment for it is by way of prescribed licensing, royalties and taxation. The primary skills that mining corporations need to operate in this environment are in fiscal management, handling public policy and legal argument. This will generally be sufficient to keep external threats at bay, as long as political and governance conditions remain unchanged. However, this traditional way of doing business is ill-suited to those situations where the institutions of the State are weak, there is a significant degree of social and political instability, or the consent of non-State actors (e.g. traditional owners) is required in order for mining to occur. Here the focus has to be on gaining and maintaining a ‘social licence to operate’, rather than just securing and protecting the company’s legal entitlement to mine. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Where social licence issues are to the fore, an entirely different set of skills is required, such as the ability to identify social issues and deal with them effectively. Moreover, the company, in order to manage the risk of losing access to land for exploration and developing mines, must make some decisions about expenditure beyond the technical scope of any project. Whereas formerly this was restricted to well-defined taxation and royalty payments to sovereign government, these days it may also involve negotiated contracts with other stakeholders to gain their endorsement. Concurrently, the company needs to develop sustainable capabilities in managing stakeholder relationships to the same end. These capabilities go far beyond what was sometimes thought of, rather dismissively, as public relations skills. What is required is the ability to work with people and communities pro- </div>
</span><br /></span><br />
Page 3 <br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
actively and transparently, and convince them that it is in everybody’s best interest for the company to develop the resource. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
It is at this point that the other, more traditional, capabilities of the company come to the fore; its technical capabilities. Without them the ore would remain in the ground, or be mined less profitably, and nobody would benefit. Furthermore, it behoves the primary party to take responsibility for catalysing a set of relational contracts that maximises the added value of the venture to the greater benefit of all parties. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
An ‘asset’ strategy and a ‘sustainable capability’ strategy both involve expenditure. Strategic assets can be defended over very lengthy periods, but may suddenly be at risk when there are changes in political and governance conditions. In contrast, the advantage of developing a sustainable capability is that it is pro-active and enhances the capacity of a company to understand, manage and minimise risk in an uncertain and changing environment. Relying entirely on administrative infrastructure in the form of government statute is fine during periods of minimal change, but a greater ability to manage your own destiny is needed in changing times. </div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Communities Architecture </div>
</span><br /></b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
At many mines in Australia, community relations is still treated as an add-on function that is marginal to the ‘real business’ of mining and processing ore. How the function is performed depends heavily on the qualities and motivations of individual community relations staff and the level of interest shown by the site general manager. When these individuals move on, as happens with a fair degree of regularity in the minerals industry, relations with the community are often disrupted and corporate memory lost. This has made it difficult for mines to maintain any kind of strategic focus in their interactions with local communities. Community relations personnel, for their part, have lacked clearly defined career paths and often have not been well supported by their organisations, particularly in terms of training and access to professional networks (Kemp, 2004). </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Clearly, for any corporate capability to be sustainable it must be systemic; that is, it must be built into the organisation’s standard methods and processes for ‘doing business’ and must be able to sustain changes in personnel. This recognition has led leading companies such as Rio Tinto to focus on developing comprehensive systems in the social arena, with the long term aim of embedding the same level of competency as exists in the corporation’s technical and financial systems. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Overall, these systems can be usefully imagined as the ‘architecture’ of the corporation; they include clearly articulated values and policies, standards and guidance, communication and reporting systems, and methods of verification. The architecture is intended to enable the corporation to develop and sustain long-term proficiencies, and maintain its organisational knowledge. Just as importantly, it seeks to facilitate the open exchange of this information so the company can respond to emerging needs at all points of its compass. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The following discussion provides, by way of an example, an overview of Rio Tinto’s communities architecture. Other mining companies, for example BHP Billiton and Newmont, have developed their own distinctive architecture, but the basic design elements are broadly aligned with what is described below. </div>
</span><br /></span><br />
Page 4 <br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><div align="CENTER">
Figure 1 : Rio Tinto Community Relations Framework </div>
</span><br /></b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
The Framework includes: </div>
<dir>
<div align="LEFT">
• a set of overarching values-based principles, called The Way We Work, that guide operations and staff in their interface with colleagues, neighbours and the wider world; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• a specific communities policy that cascades to regional and operating companies’ policies, consistent with each other and with local circumstances; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• a communities standard that describes a minimum set of policy implementation requirements; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• specific guidelines that advise and support the communities standard; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• criteria for operations to develop five year communities plans; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• a corporate assurance and reporting system that provides a means of ensuring that operations are actually doing what they say they do; and </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• a comprehensive set of community relations competencies which provides the basis for expectations and development for operating staff and communities professionals within the Group. </div>
</dir>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-size: large;"></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: large;">PolicyPolicy</span><span style="font-size: small;">Reporting</span></b><span style="font-size: small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">•S & E Report•annual workbook•plan update</span></span><b><span style="font-size: small;">ReportingReporting</span></b><span style="font-size: small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">••S ReportS & E Report••annual workbookannual workbook••plan updateplan update</span></span><b><span style="font-size: small;">Five year communities plansFive Five year communities plansplansStandard</span></b><span style="font-size: small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">•requirements•management•monitoring and reporting</span></span><b><span style="font-size: small;">StandardStandard</span></b><span style="font-size: small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">••requirementsrequirements••managementmanagement••monitoring reportingmonitoring and reporting</span></span><b><span style="font-size: small;">Assurance</span></b><span style="font-size: small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">•site managed assessments•risk assessment•Rio Tinto site visits•ERM site visits</span></span><b><span style="font-size: small;">AssuranceAssurance</span></b><span style="font-size: small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">••site assessmentssite managed assessments••risk assessmentrisk assessment••Rio Tinto site visitssite visits••ERM visitsERM site visits</span></span><b><span style="font-size: large;">Community CompetenciesCommunity Relations Competencies</span><i><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: small;">The workThe way we work</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;">Guidance notes</span></b><span style="font-size: small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">•five year communities plans•baseline community assessments•trusts, funds and foundations•cultural heritage•consultation•resettlement•compensation•community assistance</span></span><b><span style="font-size: small;">Reporting</span></b><span style="font-size: small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">•SMA guidance note•risk assessment model•site visit records</span></span><b><span style="font-size: small;">ReportingReporting</span></b><span style="font-size: small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">••SMA noteSMA guidance note••risk modelrisk assessment model••site recordssite visit records</span></span><b><span style="font-size: large;">PolicyPolicy</span><span style="font-size: small;">Reporting</span></b><span style="font-size: small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">•records </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><br />
Page 5 <br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Rio Tinto Communities policy is presented in Figure 2, below. </div>
<dir>
<div align="LEFT">
We set out to build enduring relationships with our neighbours that are characterised by mutual respect, active partnership and long term commitment. </div>
<div align="LEFT">
Good management of community relationships is as necessary to our business success as the management of our operations. Good performance requires all of us to accept responsibility for community relationships. We detail local arrangements in rolling Five year communities plans which all operations submit and update annually. The plans are set within the context of this policy and apply throughout the life cycles of the Group’s activities. </div>
<div align="LEFT">
Mutual respect depends on our understanding the issues that are important to us. Wherever we operate, we do our best to accommodate the different cultures, lifestyles, heritage and preferences of our neighbours, particularly in areas where industrial development is little known. Our communities and environment work is closely coordinated and takes account of peoples’ perceptions of the effects and consequences of our activities. </div>
<div align="LEFT">
We promote active partnerships at international, national, regional and local levels. These are based on mutual commitment, trust and openness. Our relationships with communities involve consultation to open new facilities, to run existing ones and to close them at the end of their productive lives. In doing so, we support community based projects that can make a difference in a sustainable way without creating dependency. We also assist regional development and training, employment and small business opportunities. In developing countries, we are often asked to support health, education and agricultural programs and, in collaboration with others, we help where practical. </div>
</dir>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><div align="CENTER">
Figure 2 : Rio Tinto Communities Policy </div>
</span><br /></b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
The Communities Standard, in turn, supports the policy and states that all Rio Tinto managed activities, projects and businesses are required to develop their own, locally designed community relations programs. A minimum requirement is a five year communities plan that: </div>
<dir>
<div align="LEFT">
• describes the communities directly affected by the business; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• is developed and maintained as a result of baseline community assessments; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• reflects the results of consultation with communities as well as the concerns and priorities of the business; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• links to and supports the business’ sustainable development framework; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• assesses community related risks and opportunities over a 3-5 year period; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• presents a rationale for initiatives that have been agreed with communities; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• outlines desired outcomes from the communities program over a 3-5 year horizon; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• details the business’ communities budget, personnel and contingencies; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• is updated annually; and </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• is discussed with senior management and signed off by the senior manager. </div>
</dir>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The Standard also requires that businesses undertake baseline community assessments that, amongst other things: </div>
<dir>
<div align="LEFT">
• detail the key social, environmental, and economic factors that shape life in identified communities; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• provide pertinent data on demography, family and individual well being; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• identify the drivers of social change in order to track trends that could result in significant changes, regardless of the presence or absence of the business; and </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• identify potential risks and opportunities to communities from the presence of the business and indicate how these might be avoided or secured. </div>
</dir>
</span><br /></span><br />
Page 6 <br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Mutually accepted and understood consultation with affected communities is required, and should be designed using baseline information and engagement procedures that are transparent, inclusive and culturally appropriate. The Standard specifies that consultation procedures should ensure that: </div>
<dir>
<div align="LEFT">
• community decision making reflects established conventions and protocols, supplemented if necessary by additional mechanisms for inadequately represented, marginalised or vulnerable groups; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• identified communities are as fully informed as practically possible about activities of the business and their possible effects; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• two way discussions cover community issues and priorities as well as the concerns and needs of the business; and </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• mutual understanding and/or the positions and views of both the business and the community are reviewed. </div>
</dir>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Community assistance programs that build on baseline community assessments and community consultation are also expected. Any initiatives undertaken should encourage self help and avoid dependency and be focused on: </div>
<dir>
<div align="LEFT">
• educational, health or livelihood initiatives that address community priorities; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• the comparative advantage of the business to maximise local employment, small business and local contractor opportunities; and </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• the building of long term skills and knowledge development in partnership with others, including government and NGOs. </div>
</dir>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The Standard includes minimum expectations of management, monitoring and review of all baseline assessments, community consultation and program assistance. Within this schema, considerable scope exists to deploy a wide variety of social research methodologies provided they adhere to scientific principles; that is, they are statistically robust, capable of independent review and testing, and the findings are repeatable. Equally, a diverse array of community consultation techniques is possible, so long as they are locally and cultural appropriate and take into account the views of marginalised groups. Actual program deployment can also take many forms; whether delivered though trusts, funds, foundations, partnerships or directly. The most critical point is that unilateral deployment rarely leads to sustainable outcomes; hence, the preferred emphasis is on multi-party delivery. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Another feature of the Rio Tinto framework is the requirement for a site managed assessment (SMA) to be completed against the standard every three years. This is an assurance procedure that seeks to demonstrate, in objective and verifiable ways, that sites are implementing The Way We Work and the Communities policy, as well as meeting international, national and local regulatory requirements. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
In contrast to some other companies (for example, Newmont) which rely heavily on external auditors, Rio Tinto has opted to make the SMA a site managed activity. Rio’s view is that this allows sites to tailor assurance to local community characteristics, better manage timing and resource requirements, select the appropriate level of site or multi site assessment and choose a frequency of review that lends itself to site specific needs. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The main rationale for this approach is that it is extremely difficult for external persons (particularly first time visitors) to pick up all that may be important in relation to community issues at a large, complex operation. The potential downsides include external credibility issues, standards slippage, covering up of issues and lack of external verification. As a means of dealing with these issues, Rio Tinto therefore requires that SMAs comply with a formalised scheme set out in a specific SMA guidance note. The scheme stipulates that: </div>
<dir>
<div align="LEFT">
• a team approach is used involving at least three people selected by the site, one of whom must be general manager of the site being reviewed and one of whom must be an external participant – it is also a requirement that the team not include anyone from the site with management accountabilities in the communities area; </div>
</dir>
</span><br /></span><br />
Page 7 <br />
<br />
<dir>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
• </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;">terms of reference and review team composition are signed off by the site’s managing director and Rio Tinto; </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;">
<div align="LEFT">
• normal auditable standards of reporting are followed, setting out the terms of reference, resources, personnel, assessment methodology, findings and recommendations; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• a report is produced that references the site’s previous SMA and its current Five year communities plan and identifies issues to be addressed in the next Five year communities plan; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• the final report is signed-off by the site’s managing director and distributed to the site’s chief executive and Rio Tinto. </div>
</span></span></dir><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
The policy, standard, reporting, guidance and SMA elements described above are the ‘hard-wired’ requirements of community relations good practice. However, of themselves, they are not enough. They do not provide for the expanded thinking required by mining professionals to achieve real competence in sustainable community relations. Beyond hard-wired architecture, it is the specific recruitment and training of community relations professionals and socially competent mining executives that is needed for continuous improvement in social performance. In the absence of competent personnel there will be a ceiling on the improvement that can be expected from mechanisms such as reporting, reviews and audits. Hence, while values and policy provide the canopy for Rio Tinto’s communities work, it is the development of community relations competencies that provide the foundation. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
In line with this approach, Rio Tinto has recently mapped core competencies for its community relations professionals. This was developed through an exhaustive process of consultation and debate, with the aim of identifying what is required of individuals within the Group to excel in communities work. The competencies are intended to guide professional recruitment, selection, development and deployment, and provide the basis for feedback, coaching and performance recognition. Some other companies in the industry have undertaken, or are in the process of undertaking, similar exercises. </div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Case Study </div>
</span><br /></b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
The business case and the corporate response to enhanced community expectations of minerals companies have been presented thus far in dry abstraction. To enable a richer understanding, Rio Tinto’s history in working with Indigenous communities in Australia over the past 15 years will be discussed, focusing particularly on the Argyle Diamond Mine in the East Kimberley region of Western Australia. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
In the 1980s and early 1990s, in common with the rest of the Australian mining industry, Rio Tinto experienced trauma coming to terms with rapidly evolving community expectations over the control of exploration and mining access to land. For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples these changes came to be reflected in the Mabo and Wik High Court decisions and Native Title legislation that recognised the pre-existing common law rights of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people over land. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
This history can be illustrated by reference to Rio Tinto’s Argyle diamond mine, discovered in the late 1970s in the East Kimberley region of Western Australia. At the time of discovery, exploration teams encountered opposition from local and other Aboriginal people, but eventually an agreement to mine was signed with a group of traditional owners, despite the fact that the mine would necessitate the destruction of a significant ceremony site at what was known as Barramundi Gap. This so-called Glen Hills Agreement attracted adverse reactions, from the wider group of traditional owners and other Aboriginal groups and, for different reasons, from the Western Australian State Government. The nature of the agreement process and the destruction of the site at Barramundi Gap distressed the Aboriginal groups. The Government was concerned that an agreement outside of statutory requirement was reached with an Aboriginal group at all. In the early 1980s, the company’s linkages with local communities, most notably Warmun, Mandangala and Doon Doon, became much more extensive. The Argyle ‘Good Neighbour Agreement’ became the vehicle for a number of largely unilateral programs aimed at improving the circumstances of local Aborigines (for a useful historical account of developments at Argyle see Howitt, 2000). </div>
</span><br /></span><br />
Page 8 <br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Protracted dispute with local Aboriginal people at Argyle was narrowly avoided, but residual resentment lingered as a result of ‘unfinished business’ between the mine and traditional owners. Elsewhere in Western Australia in the following decade development approval was gained under State enabling legislation, leading to greater antipathy. Similar experiences in other parts of the Group, and comparisons with its overseas operations where land rights recognition is a normal part of business, led Rio Tinto to reassess its Aboriginal land access and community relations approach in Australia. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
In order to better understand trends that underlie potential emerging social disequilibrium, Rio Tinto and its operations now carry out baseline communities assessments. For instance, in 2002 Rio Tinto commissioned a study of Indigenous population projections out to the year 2016 for the hinterlands of its long-life mines and areas of exploration interest in northern Australia (Taylor and Bell, 2001). It is worth pointing out that census data from these regions do not reflect the true picture, and that future population scenarios by Government or other agencies have rarely been attempted for Indigenous groups at regional levels. Hence, significant difficulties were present in attempting the projections and the figures are likely to be very conservative. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The research made it very clear that in the Pilbara, Kakadu/West Arnhem, Gulf of Carpentaria, East Kimberley and Cape York regions, the momentum for population growth lies with Indigenous residents. A related and similarly striking feature was the degree to which the non-indigenous population in each region is dominated by people of working age (ages 20-44), reflecting in-movement, frequently temporary, for employment purposes. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The key finding was that by 2016 the combined Indigenous population in Rio Tinto’s Northern Australian mine hinterlands is conservatively projected to increase by some 10,000 people, which represents an increase of 39%. This translates as an increase from 24,000 to 34,000 Indigenous people living locally. </div>
<br />
<div align="CENTER">
1996 census & 2016 projected Indigenous population (source: Taylor 2002) </div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><div align="CENTER">
Figure 3 : Indigenous Populations: Northern Australia </div>
</span></b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><div align="CENTER">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="CENTER">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">Rio Tinto Operating SiteRio Tinto Exploration TenementNominal ABS Subdivisions</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">ComalcoBell SaltComalco WeipaComalcoGladstone</span></span><b><span style="font-size: xx-small;">500km</span></b><span style="font-size: xx-small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">Hamersley/RobeArgyleDiamondsCoal & AlliedRio TintoCoal AustraliaERANorth ParkesThree Springs Talc</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;">Pilbara</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;">1996 actual -57212016 projected -7705</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;">East Kimberley</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;">1996 actual -48872016 projected -6351</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;">Kakadu/West Arnhem</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;">1996 actual -43242016 projected -6593</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;">Carpentaria</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;">1996 actual -65232016 projected -8673</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;">Cape York</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;">1996 actual -36042016 projected -4238</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">Rio SubdivisionsRio </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;">4238</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: xx-small;">ComalcoBell BayDampier TalcComalcoBell </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;">4238 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS,Arial Unicode MS; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><br />
Page 9 <br />
<b><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="LEFT">
600400200 </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">400200 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span></b><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
A second key finding involved the projected Indigenous population for each mine hinterland as a percentage of the projected total population. In each region studied the Indigenous population is expected to increase its relative weight to as much as 93% of total population. Overall, across all Rio Tinto mine hinterlands in northern Australia there is a 38% increase in Indigenous population compared to a projected increase of only 16% for the non-indigenous population. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
A third key finding was the that while the Indigenous population is expanding in all age categories, it is heavily weighted to individuals of prime working age. In 1996 there were 9,250 individuals aged between 25 and 64 years. By 2016, this group will have increased by 6,400, or 70%. The momentum of Indigenous population growth is all the more dramatic when compared to the non-indigenous population (Figure 4). </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(after Taylor: 2004) </div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Figure 4 : Distribution of E Kimberley Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations </div>
</span><br /></b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
These data are vitally important for mine and closure planning, regional development and social services allocation. A detailed study commissioned by Argyle Diamond Mine for the northern East Kimberley region makes this clear (Taylor 2004). The study demonstrated that the region has a serious economic development problem. Taylor points out that "around one half of its resident adult population, representing the majority of its Aboriginal population, remains overly-dependent on welfare, structurally detached from the labour market, and ill-equipped to engage in it. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
More disconcerting, perhaps, is a prognosis that these indicators will worsen as a consequence of rapid population growth if recent trends in the rate of Aboriginal job acquisition continue; this is even assuming that ADM targets for local employment are met. From a policy perspective, ‘business as usual’ is simply insufficient to meet the expanding needs of the regional population". </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
These data show that even with the most optimistic Indigenous employment objectives, Rio Tinto mines cannot hope to employ anywhere near the rapidly expanding Aboriginal populations around its northern Australian mines. Sustainable development and mining in these regions is going to require a broad coalition of government, corporate and local interests to build regional economies with the range of enterprise and employment opportunity that can. Whilst not Rio Tinto’s sole responsibility, long-term corporate self interest demands that the company ensures that all stakeholders recognise the challenge and work to ensure sustainable development in these regions. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Planning for the future cannot satisfactorily progress without comprehensive consultation with those most affected; hence, the next stage of the Rio Tinto scheme - mutual consultation - is again illustrated by reference to the East Kimberley region. </div>
</span><br /></span><br />
Page 10 <br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Argyle Diamond Mine’s difficult early history was described above. In 2001, Argyle committed to reviewing its ‘Good Neighbour Agreement’ and commenced a comprehensive process of consultation with traditional owners, leading to a new agreement. In September, 2004, after three years in the making, Mirriuwung, Gidga, Malgnin and Wallar traditional owners, Argyle and the Kimberley Land Council signed the Argyle Participation Agreement (APA). The Agreement was registered as an Indigenous Land Use Agreement (ILUA) under the Native Title Act in April 2005. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The APA represents a comprehensive and legally constituted form of consultation and agreement and is the most advanced in Australia to date. It formally sets out a shared vision for regional development, including traditional owner ceremonial responsibilities associated with the mine lease area and their approval for the mine to proceed underground if commercially feasible. Benefits to traditional owners, to be governed through community controlled trust structures, will provide for present day and post-mine programs in, amongst other things, health, education and culture. Eight management plans for on-going traditional owner consultation and participation in non-operational mine business also support the agreement. The management plans cover: </div>
<dir>
<div align="LEFT">
• Aboriginal site protection and heritage clearance work; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• training and employment programs for greater direct Aboriginal participation in the mine; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• cross cultural training for all mine employees and contractors; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• traditional owner access to non operational areas of the mine lease; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• once a year traditional owner land management inspection of country and water; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• traditional owner participation in planning eventual closure and decommissioning options; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• business development opportunities associated with the mine; and </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• provision of specific attention, with its own management plan, to Devil Devil Springs, a heritage site of prime importance that has been affected by mine activities. </div>
</dir>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Significantly, the APA benefits extend beyond local traditional owners into the broader East Kimberley, a critical component of Argyle’s localisation program and its contribution to sustainable regional development. Argyle is to decide in late 2005 whether or not to proceed with an underground mine. The current open pit operation is due to close in 2008; an underground operation would extend mine life to 2024. The APA secures local traditional owner approval and participation in the activity of either option. In effect, the APA says how traditional owners and Argyle will work together from now on for the life of the mine, whether it be 2008 or 2024. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Rio Tinto’s third element of sequential deployment, community agreed assistance programs, can also be illustrated by reference to Argyle. In the vast majority of its dealings on Aboriginal land in Australia, Rio Tinto is consistently told by local Aboriginal people that they have no in-principle objection to mining on their lands, provided they are assisted to participate in the economic activity it engenders. The assistance has to be at a level that overcomes the disadvantage suffered as a result of history and the on-going deficit in health, education, infrastructure, training and employment. This message and request for assistance was (again) relayed and secured during negotiation of the Argyle agreement. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
As it happens, Argyle moved immediately on the employment aspiration and worked to substantially increase the number of its Aboriginal employees during the period of the three-year APA negotiation. From 5% Aboriginal employment in year 2000 it progressed to 24% by April 2005 (Figure 5). Furthermore, Argyle has set a target of 40% local Aboriginal employment should it proceed with underground mining. Lest anybody think that such achievement is of no substance and comes at no cost, the overall rate of employment for Aboriginal people elsewhere in the mining industry is less than 5%. The additional cost of pre-employment, recruitment and retention beyond 26 weeks for local Aboriginal employees is estimated by Argyle to range from $50,000 to $80,000. </div>
</span><br /></span><br />
Page 11 <br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><div align="CENTER">
Figure 5 : Aboriginal % of Argyle Workforce </div>
</span><br /></b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
The key elements of Argyle’s Aboriginal employment strategy are: </div>
<dir>
<div align="LEFT">
• work readiness programs, inclusive of: relationship development, individual mentoring, school-based enrichment programs and rigorous feedback to unsuccessful applicants; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• recruitment systems involving: face to face application processes, four day assessment workshops, drug and alcohol mentoring and individual case management; </div>
<div align="LEFT">
• retention systems, involving: individual training plans, assignment of workplace mentors, and life skills and family support. </div>
</dir>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The assistance programs agreed to under the APA are in line with the latest thinking on international community development and also reflect Rio Tinto’s desire to support sustainable community activities. The philosophy of the company – and of Argyle Diamonds management - is that the best chance for community program success comes with a business driven approach, whereby the comparative advantage of the operation is harnessed, the skills and knowledge of all employees are engaged, the management skills of the mining operation are deployed, and there is an insistence on results and profitability. This represents a significant departure from past practice, where expenditure was often in areas where the mine had no comparative advantage, a very small number of personnel were engaged, top management was not directly involved and the emphasis was on expenditure and subsidy rather than economic results, profitability and self sufficiency. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
To place this case study in perspective, it should be acknowledged that Rio Tinto is a large and diverse organisation which operates in a variety of contexts, ranging from remote regions with large Aboriginal populations (such as the East Kimberleys) through to provincial industrial centres and settled agricultural areas. Specific aspects of the approach taken by Argyle are unlikely to be transferable to these other contexts. Moreover, there has perhaps been a stronger imperative – as well as a greater opportunity – for Argyle to re-focus its approach to community relations than has been the case for some other Rio Tinto operations. Nonetheless, the case study is a good example of what is possible and helps to illustrate the new direction now being taken by Rio Tinto and other leading mining companies. </div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Challenges </div>
</span><br /></b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Companies such as Rio Tinto face a number of challenges in rolling out their new communities architecture and embedding this into existing organisational structures and processes. In this section we briefly discuss three of these challenges and outline how Rio Tinto is seeking to address them. </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<b><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: medium;">05101520251985198819911994199720002003</span></span></b></div>
<b><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: medium;">
</span></span></b><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: medium;"></span></span><br />
Page 12 <br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
1. </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<i><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;">Securing site-level buy in </span></span></i></div>
<i><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
While the business case for strengthening and systematizing the community relations function is generally quite well understood at the corporate level, this is not always the case at the operational level. Some site-based managers are fully cognisant of the importance of the community relations function, but others retain the traditional short-term focus on maximising production and minimising costs. Persuading this latter group of managers to improve their community systems can be a challenge, particularly if there are no local issues ‘on the radar’. A complicating factor here is that the main benefits of improving management systems are often collective in nature (improved corporate reputation, etc) whereas many of the costs of implementing these improvements are borne by individual operations. In an industry where there is a very strong focus on cost containment, this can create incentives to engage in ‘free riding’. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Rio Tinto is endeavouring to address these and related issues by defining clear minimum standards for all operations and building this into performance monitoring processes. It also has an ongoing internal communication program aimed at promoting organisation-wide understanding of the business case for improving corporate social performance. However, it will take some time to embed these new ways of thinking throughout the different layers of the company and to align the various internal drivers of management behaviour so that operational managers receive consistent signals from the organisation about what is important. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
2. </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<i><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;">Getting the right people </span></span></i></div>
<i><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
To state the obvious, systems are ultimately only as good as the people who operate them. This is particularly so in the area of community relations, where personal trust, empathy and intuitive knowledge are key determinants of effectiveness. Community relations personnel who are ill-suited to the role can de-stabilise relations between a mine and its community quite quickly, as can site-level managers who lack skills in this area. Arguably, companies such as Rio have done as much as they can with their systems architecture to improve community engagement. The real constraint on improving performance is not a lack of will or failing to embrace the right techniques, but rather a lack of good hands-on people. Currently, neither industry, universities nor other agencies can assure a reliable supply of knowledgeable, competent communities professionals. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
As described earlier in this paper, Rio Tinto’s strategy for dealing with this issue is to align its personnel management strategies (recruitment, deployment, development, career progression) with an agreed set of competencies for community relations staff (and for other personnel whose roles involve significant interaction with ‘the public’). Some other companies have initiated similar processes. Over the longer term, this strategy will hopefully generate an expanded pool of competent practitioners with transferable skills and knowledge, but in the short to medium term finding the ‘right people’ (for what can be very demanding roles) will remain a challenge for the industry. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
3. </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<i><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;">Getting the architecture right </span></span></i></div>
<i><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Systems are an efficient means of storing information and help to provide focus, consistency and continuity, but they also have some potentially dysfunctional aspects. For example, there is a risk that organisations become overly process-focused, such that complying with the requirements of ‘the system’ becomes an end in itself rather than being a means to achieving better outcomes. Management systems also need to be carefully designed so that they leave space for innovation and adaptation. This is particularly so in the area of community relations, where a ‘one size fits all’ approach to dealing with diverse communities will almost certainly </div>
</span><br /></span><br />
Page 13 <br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
not work. The challenge for organisations such as Rio Tinto, therefore, is to ensure that they get the balance of their systems right so that sites retain the capacity to adapt to local circumstances where required, while ensuring that sites act consistently with core corporate requirements. It will also be important for companies to monitor and review the operation of these systems at regular intervals to guard against unintended and potentially counter-productive behaviours. </div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Conclusion </div>
</span><br /></b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Plainly stated, the successful minerals company of the future needs to be more than just technically and commercially proficient; it must be just as competent in social science, relationship management and community development as it is in engineering, financial planning and environmental science. This is increasingly being recognised in the minerals industry and we are now seeing companies that once had an overpowering engineering culture coming to accept the validity of new values and the worth of community development skills (Harvey 2002). </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The addition of social skills to the mix of engineering virtuosity, effective management and commercial savvy has clear benefits at the operational and business unit level, but does not necessarily generate <u>corporate </u>competitive advantages such as enhanced reputation and associated access to financial capital on preferred terms. For there to be a corporate benefit, these enhanced capabilities must be seen to be embedded in the corporate structure itself, rather than just residing in individual components and ‘showcase’ sites. In a global environment of constant scrutiny, corporate guarantee is now as important for risk management as sovereign guarantee. In seeking self-regulation, corporations have accepted the arbiter of global scrutiny and market appraisal. The added value of the corporate whole is its reputation for multiple bottom line delivery and its ability to secure finance for operational investment at better than average market rates. Sound business architecture provides the basis for this guarantee by setting up a network of internal contracts, maintaining the corporate knowledge base, discouraging ad hoc behaviour and fostering consistency of delivery. Equity and debt finance are equally attracted to the associated reduction in risk. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
While product branding adds considerable value to the marketing of actual products, corporate branding adds its value through the guarantee of social integration, acceptance and self-regulation. Hence, progressive companies, such as Rio Tinto, have staked their reputation and their future access to development finance on comprehensive business architectures that aim over time to build seamless and effective community engagement systems. The challenges in effectively implementing these systems should not be underestimated, but companies that are able to meet these challenges will be well placed to reap substantial rewards through competitive advantage in land access and development approvals, lower costs of capital, and reduced risk exposure. </div>
</span><br /></span><br />
Page 14 <br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
References </div>
</span><br /></b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Brereton, D (2002) ‘Building the Business Case for Sustainable Development’, Minerals Council of Australia 2002 Sustainable Development Conference, Newcastle. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Harvey, B. (2002) "New Competencies in Mining: Rio Tinto’s Experience", Paper presented to Congress of Mining and Metallurgical Institutions Conference on ‘International Codes, Technology and Sustainability for the Minerals Industry’, Cairns, 27-28 May. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Howitt, R. (2000) ‘Recognition, respect and reconciliation – changing relations between Aborigines and mining interests in Australia’ in R. Howitt (ed) Rethinking Resource Management. Justice, sustainability and indigenous peoples, Routledge, London and New York. </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Humphreys, D. (2000) ‘A business case perspective on community relations in mining’, 26 Resources Policy, 127-131. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
___(2001) ‘Sustainable development: can the mining industry afford it?’, 27 Resources Policy, 1-7 </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
IIED (2002) Breaking New Ground, Mining Minerals and Sustainable Development: The Report of the MMSD Project, Earthscan Publications, London. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Kemp, D. (2004). ‘The emerging field of community relations: profiling the practitioner perspective’. Paper presented at the Minerals Council of Australia Sustainable Development Conference 04, Melbourne. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Minerals Council of Australia Enduring Value: The Australian Minerals Industry Framework for Sustainable Development, Guidance for Implementation <u>http://www.minerals.org.au/data/assets/pdf_file/5515/19520_MCA_ev_impl_booklet.pdf </u></div>
<u>
</u><br />
<div align="LEFT">
Ministerial Council on Mineral and Petroleum Resources (2004) Draft Principles for Engagement with Communities and Stakeholders. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Nish, S. (2004). Argyle Participation Agreement. Unpublished correspondence November 2004. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Rio Tinto, Communities policy http://www.riotinto.com/community/communities.aspx </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Rio Tinto Communities standard, 2004. Unpublished internal Rio Tinto document. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Taylor, J. (2004). ‘Aboriginal Population Profiles for Development Planning in the Northern East Kimberley’, CAEPR Monograph 23, Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research, The Australian National University, Canberra. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Taylor, J. & Bell, M. (2001). ‘Implementing Regional Agreements Aboriginal Population Projections in Rio Tinto mine hinterlands: 1996-2016’, Unpublished CAEPR Report to Rio Tinto, Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research, The Australian National University, Canberra. </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
KEY WORDS: </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Community Engagement; </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Mining and Community </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Business Case </div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Management Systems </div>
</span><br /></span><br />
Page 15 NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-84242638585998530082015-01-16T10:45:00.001-08:002015-01-16T10:45:15.849-08:00THE EMERGING FIELD OF COMMUNITY RELATIONS:PROFILING THE PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVE*<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
THE EMERGING FIELD OF COMMUNITY RELATIONS:</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
PROFILING THE PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVE*</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: medium;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
Deanna Kemp</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: medium;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial;"><div align="LEFT">
PhD Student, University of Queensland and</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Independent Consultant</div>
</span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: medium;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
Centre for Social Responsibility in Mining</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: medium;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
CSRM is a member of the Sustainable Minerals Institute, The University of Queensland.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
www.csrm.uq.edu.au</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
* This paper was presented at the Inaugural Minerals Council of Australia Global Sustainable</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Development Conference, Melbourne, November 2004.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
2</div>
</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
TABLE OF CONTENTS</div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Introduction .........................................................................................................................................................3</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Survey Design and Distribution .........................................................................................................................3</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Industry Profile of Responses.............................................................................................................................4</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Respondent Demographics .................................................................................................................................6</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The General Nature of Community Relations Work .......................................................................................7</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Organisational Arrangements............................................................................................................................7</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
What’s it like for Workers?..............................................................................................................................11</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Professional Development.................................................................................................................................13</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
What Practitioners Want..................................................................................................................................15</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Summary of Findings........................................................................................................................................16</div>
</span><br /></span><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span></i><br />
<i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
INTRODUCTION</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></i><br /></b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span></i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
Community relations work is an emerging field of practice in the minerals industry and</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
involves a wide range of activities and responsibilities. Different sites and companies may</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
use other terms, but for the purposes of this paper, the term ‘community relations’ is used</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
broadly to indicate work that involves facilitating and/or managing relationships and</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
interaction between minerals sites and local communities.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Surprisingly little research has been undertaken about people employed by minerals</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
operations to do community relations work. The ‘voice’ of community relations practitioners</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
seems hidden amongst broader debates about the minerals industry, its social and</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
environmental impacts, and progress towards sustainable development. Given the significant</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
effort the industry has expended on responding to external stakeholders, local to global, it is</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
important to understand the perspective of community relations practitioners, as they hold</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
one of the many keys to unlocking the industry’s potential for achieving enhanced corporate</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
social performance on the ground.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
This paper presents key findings of an industry survey undertaken in 2004 of community</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
relations practitioners in the Australian and New Zealand minerals industries. It aims to build</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
a profile of this occupational group and stimulate discussion about the nature of corporate</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
community relations from a worker perspective. It also aims to document some of the</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
practical challenges that workers face day-to-day, both personally and professionally. The</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
survey represents Phase 1 of a two-phase study of site-based community relations</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
practitioners.</div>
</span><b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span></i></b><br />
<b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
SURVEY DESIGN AND DISTRIBUTION</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></i><br /></b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span></i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
The survey comprised primarily closed response questions covering different dimensions of</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
community relations work, including: work activities, site context, organisational</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
arrangements, occupational background and professional knowledge. These were also several</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
open-ended questions about the challenges of community relations work. The survey was</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
designed in consultation with corporate representatives, community relations practitioners</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
and academic advisers. Quantitative analysis was undertaken via the software program</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
SPSS</div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">, primarily through the descriptive statistics function, while the Nvivo</span><span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"> </span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">software</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
program and manual coding was used for qualitative analysis.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The survey targeted personnel working in the Australian and New Zealand Minerals</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
industries whose role included a significant level of responsibility for community relations</div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: xx-small;">1</span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
At the time of undertaking the survey a consolidated industry list of community relations</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
practitioners did not exist. Neither the Minerals Council of Australia, its counterpart body in</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
New Zealand, nor state industry bodies held such a list. Thus, corporate offices of Australia</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
and New Zealand’s largest mining companies were contacted to create a distribution list. This</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
strategy was based on the assumption that major companies were more likely to employ</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
community relations practitioners than small to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Several</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
SMEs and individual sites were contacted directly and included in the list, however responses</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
came primarily from larger companies. External consultants were not included in the sample.</div>
</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="LEFT">
1 </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;">For clarification a definition of community relations work was provided on the top of the survey.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
4</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
While the distribution list was broad, there would have been people undertaking community</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
relations work who did not receive the survey.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The survey set out to capture the perspective of site-based practitioners working in physical</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
proximity to communities in which minerals operations are based. However, as some regional</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
and corporate office-based workers were included in company lists, they also received the</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
survey. While the responses of these groups are relevant to the research, significant parts of</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
this paper focuses primarily on presenting data about the perspective of site-based</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
respondents in particular.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The survey was posted in hard copy to 162 people, 152 of whom were located in Australia</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
and 10 in New Zealand. Hard copy distribution allowed for a greater degree of confidentiality</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
for respondents than electronic return via a corporate email system. Two companies elected</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
to mail the survey to employees themselves. In every case the survey was returned directly to</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
the author at the University of Queensland via a reply-paid envelope. A period of six weeks</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
was provided to complete and return the survey.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
While a ‘picture’ of community relations workers has emerged through the survey, the</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
method had limitations. It was not possible to get ‘deep’ insight into the experiences of</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
workers, clarify or validate responses, or understand the full context of answers. These</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
limitations have been addressed in Phase 2 of the project, through the use of ethnographic</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
methods, which have involved workplace observation and in-depth interviewing with seven</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
specialist site-based community relations practitioners. Despite its limitations, the survey</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
does provide important context for the field research, especially given the lack of available</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
information about community relations workers as an occupational group. Phase 2 has been</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
completed, and results are currently being analysed.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The survey did not inquire about the salary range of community relations workers to enable</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
comparison with other occupational groups and professionals. It may be useful for</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
subsequent research to investigate salaries, and refine the sampling frame.</div>
</span><b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span></i></b><br />
<b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
INDUSTRY PROFILE OF RESPONSES</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></i><br /></b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span></i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
In total, 91 responses were received from 13 different companies. This represents a response</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
rate of 56 per cent, which is considered satisfactory given that the distribution list was broad</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
and exploratory rather than narrow and targeted.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The largest proportion of responses was from Queensland (39%), then Western Australia</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(24%) and New South Wales (11%). There was a small response from New Zealand (3%),</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Northern Territory (3%) and Tasmania (1%). Responses from South Australia (2%) and</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Victoria (11%) were primarily from corporate and/or regional offices.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
5</div>
</span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Figure 1: Respondents by State</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="LEFT">
SA 2%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Tas 1%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
NT 3%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
NZ 3%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
NSW 11%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
WA 24%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Vic 11%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Unknown</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
6%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Qld 39%</div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
n=91</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
Respondents worked across a range of commodities, with many involved in more than one.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The dominant commodities represented were coal (37%) and gold (22%). Iron ore had a 9 per</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
cent representation. Some respondents indicated involvement in bauxite, alumina, aluminium,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
nickel, copper/lead/zinc and manganese operations. People from corporate offices also</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
indicated involvement in diamonds and natural gas</div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;">2</span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
Given this profile, the coal industry on the east coast of Australia appears to have been oversampled,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
with iron-ore under-sampled, particularly in Western Australia. Responses from the</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Northern Territory were also low considering the state’s resource profile. It is unlikely that</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
this has significantly influenced results, other than in specific areas such as Indigenous</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Affairs.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Of the total sample, 64 per cent were site-based workers. This group is the primary focus of</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
this study. Around 29 per cent were located off site, primarily in corporate and/or regional</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
offices. A small percentage of respondents (6%) stated that they were located both on and off</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
site, sharing time between the two.</div>
</span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Figure 2: Location of respondents</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Both on and</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
off site 6%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
At a minerals</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
site 64%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Unknow n</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
1%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Off site</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
29%</div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
n=91</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="LEFT">
2 </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;">Some of this was outside Australia and New Zealand</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
6</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The majority of site-based workers covered one site (71%). Not surprisingly, the vast</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
majority of off-site workers covered more than one site. Workers who covered more than one</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
site account for the multiple answers to many of the survey questions in this study.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Most site-based respondents were involved in operating mines or plants (95%). Some also</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
worked in other stages of the minerals life cycle, from exploration and construction, to</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
production and closure, but only a very small percentage worked exclusively in these other</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
areas.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Site-based workers primarily worked in rural locations, either closely settled (29%) or</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
sparsely populated (22%). About one third worked on a remote site (36%), with a minority</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
working in an urban</div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: xx-small;">3 </span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">context (16%).</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
The majority of site-based workers said that the workforce in their location lived locally to</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
the operation (64%), with a minority being camp-based</div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: xx-small;">4 </span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">(21%), or a combination of</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
residential and camp-based (16%).</div>
</span><b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span></i></b><br />
<b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
RESPONDENT DEMOGRAPHICS</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></i><br /></b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span></i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
Few workers were in the upper and lower age groups. There was a fairly even spread</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
between the three middle age ranges of 26-35 (32%), 36-45 (35%) and 46-55 (25%).</div>
</span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Figure 3: Age Range</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="LEFT">
0%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
5%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
10%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
15%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
20%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
25%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
30%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
35%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
18-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 56 and over</div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
n=91</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
There were more males (60%) than females (40%). However, compared to the industry norm,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
this area of work appears to have a significantly high representation of women.</div>
</span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="LEFT">
3 </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;">In very close proximity to a city or regional centre</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="LEFT">
4 </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;">Most likely fly-in/fly-out or drive-in/drive-out.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
7</div>
</span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Figure 4: Gender Representation</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Female</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
40%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Male</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
60%</div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
n=91</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
There were few indigenous respondents (6%) possibly due to WA and the NT being underrepresented</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
in the sample.</div>
</span><b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span></i></b><br />
<b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
THE GENERAL NATURE OF COMMUNITY RELATIONS WORK</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></i><br /></b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span></i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
Respondents were asked to indicate all their main community relations-type activities. A list</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
of 12 activities was provided. Responses suggest that workers undertake a broad spread of</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
activities, with a mean of six activities nominated. Table 1 shows the pattern of responses.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The most common community relations-type activity was consultation and engagement</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(68%), followed by public relations (66%), sponsorship and donations (57%), then</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
community programs (53%) and dealing with community complaints (52%).</div>
</span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Table 1: Community Relations Activities Undertaken by Respondents</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
Activity %</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(n=91)*</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
Community consultation and engagement 68</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Public relations (e.g. local media liaison, publicity, community events etc.) 66</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Sponsorships and donations (including in-kind assistance) 57</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Community programs (e.g. community development, capacity building etc.) 53</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Community complaints 52</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Employee communications re: sustainable development 47</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Government relations 45</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Indigenous affairs 44</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Issues management and crisis communication 43</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Community education about the minerals industry 37</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Cultural heritage management 35</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Other 12</div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
*Multiple responses permitted</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
8</div>
</span><b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span></i></b><br />
<b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
ORGANISATIONAL ARRANGEMENTS</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></i><br /></b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span></i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
(a) </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">Formalisation of Responsibilities</span></i></b></div>
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">
</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span></i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
The survey findings suggest that some workers may benefit from greater formalisation</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
of their community relations responsibilities. Of the total sample, the majority of</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
respondents said their community relations activities and responsibilities had been</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
formalised in their job description. About one third (33%) said their responsibilities</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
had either not been formalised, or were only partially formalised.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(b) </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">Departmental Location</span></i></b></div>
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">
</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span></i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
More than one-third of respondents were associated with more than one department,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
suggesting a complex set of organisational arrangements</div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: xx-small;">5</span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">. Table 2 shows the pattern</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
of responses. Workers were most commonly located in a stand-alone community</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
relations department (29%). The second most common location was within Public</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Relations/External Affairs (27%), followed by a combination of Environment and</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Community Relations (14%) and then Environment (13%) and Human Resources</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(13%).</div>
</span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Table 2: Departmental Location</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
Department %</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(n=91)*</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
Community Relations 29</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Public Affairs/External Relations 27</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Environment 13</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Environment and Community Relations 14</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Human Resources 13</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Indigenous Affairs</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Other 14</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Executive Office (e.g. General Manager or Mine Manager etc.) 9</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Exploration 3</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Production 1</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Legal -</div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
*Multiple responses permitted</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
The survey results raise questions about the human resource commitment being made</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
to community relations as compared to other disciplines, particularly in light of the</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
strong corporate commitments being made in this area. Only a minority of the total</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
sample (36%) said they worked exclusively in community relations. Thus, the</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
majority were not a dedicated resource, with about half (51%) also working in</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
environment, and one-third in human resources (33%). Those people who also worked</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
in other areas, spent an average of 28 per cent of their time on community relations.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(c) </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">Types of Practitioners</span></i></b></div>
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">
</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span></i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
The survey results point to four broad ‘types’ of practitioners: specialist practitioners</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
in a dedicated department, and those also working in Public Relations/External</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Affairs, Environment or Human Resources. Further studies might examine this more</div>
</span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="LEFT">
5 </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;">However, some may have been indicating their sub-department and ‘parent’ department.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
9</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
closely to understand whether organisational location is related to how practitioners</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
see their role.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The frequent location of community relations within Public Relations/External Affairs</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
departments, and the large proportion of respondents undertaking public</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
affairs/external affairs activities may help explain why community relations is</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
perceived by some stakeholders as ‘just PR spin’.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(d) </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">Reporting Arrangements</span></i></b></div>
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">
</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span></i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
About half of the site-based respondents (48%) reported directly to a site-based</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
General Manager and 21 per cent to a corporate manager, with 28 per cent of the</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
remainder reporting to another site-based manager. The majority (45%) of those</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
workers located partly or wholly off site reported to a corporate manager and 27 per</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
cent reported to a site-based manager or General Manager. Further research may seek</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
to understand these reporting arrangements, and whether greater or lesser degrees of</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
complexity in reporting exist in other disciplines.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(e) </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">Professional Isolation</span></i></b></div>
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">
</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span></i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
Of the total sample, about one third (31%) indicated that they were sole professionals,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
that is, there were no other people working in a professional capacity in community</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
relations in their location. For site-based workers the figure was 40 per cent.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Professional isolation may be an issue for some sole professionals given that they</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
would be working amongst other well-populated occupational and professional</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
groupings (e.g. technical trades, engineering, geology etc.) that would offer collegial</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
support.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(f) </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">Management Responsibility</span></i></b></div>
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">
</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span></i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
The majority of respondents in the total sample (78%) said that the community</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
relations function was represented at a senior management level in the location where</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
they worked. The majority of respondents (59%) also indicated that management</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
attached a high level of importance to community relations. While there is still</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
opportunity for improvement, these findings are encouraging from both a worker and</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
a community perspective.</div>
</span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Figure 5: Level of Management Support</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="LEFT">
0%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
10%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
20%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
30%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
40%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
50%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
60%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
None Low Neutral Some High</div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
n=91</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
10</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(g) </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">Building a Profile</span></i></b></div>
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">
</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span></i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
People undertaking community relations work in the minerals industry are generally</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
well educated and have considerable industry experience. However, the survey results</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
show that the majority has not been tertiary educated in a directly relevant discipline.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
In addition, the group has a low level of prior experience in community relations-type</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
work, either within or outside the industry. The industry does not seem to be</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
recruiting people from other industries or sectors, as results indicated a low level of</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
lateral entry. Those entering the field from within the industry tend to come from</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
technical disciplines, rather than ‘people professions’.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(h) </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">General Industry Experience</span></i></b></div>
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">
</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span></i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
Respondents appeared to have considerable experience within the minerals industry.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
The average time worked within the industry was 12.5 years, ranging from a couple of</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
months to 37 years. On average, respondents had worked in their current position for</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
about three years. The minimum time worked was less than one month, and the</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
maximum 20 years.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(i) </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">Prior Community Relations-type Experience</span></i></b></div>
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">
</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span></i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
Of the total sample, the majority (62%) said they had no experience in community</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
relations-type work outside the minerals industry. About 43 per cent of the total</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
sample said they had no prior experience in community relations-type work within the</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
industry.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Of the total sample, around two thirds (67%) had worked in the minerals industry in</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
another capacity prior to taking up their role in community relations, many in more</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
than one area. Table 3 shows that of those who said they had previously worked in</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
another capacity, the vast majority (90%) had been employed in technical and natural</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
science disciplines, such as environment (33%), geology (20%), engineering (16%),</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
production (16%), metallurgy (3%) and information technology (2%). About 23% had</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
some prior experience in human resource management.</div>
</span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Table 3: Background of Respondents With Prior Experience in the Industry</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
Previous Area of</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Work</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Prior Experience %</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(n=60)*</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
Environment 33</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Geology 20</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Engineering 16</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Production 16</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Metallurgy 3</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Technical/Natural</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Science</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
IT 2</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Human Resources 23</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Administration 12</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Supply 5</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Finance 2</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Humanities/Social</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Science/Other</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Legal -</div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
* Multiple responses permitted.</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
11</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(j) </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">Qualifications and Education</span></i></b></div>
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">
</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span></i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
About 84 per cent of the total sample held tertiary qualifications. Indicative of their</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
prior work experience, the majority of respondents (60%) held undergraduate</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
qualifications in technical and natural science disciplines, that is, the ‘hard’ sciences.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
About one quarter (27%) of respondents held qualifications in the ‘soft’ sciences,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
including arts, communication, sociology, archaeology and education. A significant</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
proportion of respondents had pursued postgraduate qualifications, most of which</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
appeared to be in the same discipline as their undergraduate degree, or in</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
management, such as an MBA.</div>
</span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Table 4: Tertiary Qualifications of Respondents</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
Discipline Qualifications %</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(n=75)</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
Science/Applied</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Science/Chemistry/Environmental</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Science/Geography/</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
48</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Engineering (Mining, Civil etc.) 11</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Technical/</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Natural Science</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
IT</div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
Total Technical/Natural Science</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
1</div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
60</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
Arts/Humanities/Social</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Science/Sociology/ Archaeology/</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Anthropology</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
23</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Humanities/</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Social Science</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Education</div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
Total Humanities</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
4</div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
27</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
Other Business/Commerce/ Management 13</div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
TOTAL 100</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Note: Table excludes respondents who did not have tertiary qualifications.</div>
</span><br /></span><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span></i><br />
<i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
WHAT IS IT LIKE FOR WORKERS?</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></i><br /></b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span></i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
Several survey questions sought insight into the workplace reality of community relations</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
practitioners to understand what it was like to do this work. The following section starts to</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
form such a picture. Phase 2 of the research builds on this.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(a) </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">What Attracts Workers</span></i></b></div>
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">
</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span></i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
Workers were asked an open-ended question about what attracted them to community</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
relations work. Responses revealed two dominant themes of attraction. Firstly,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
workers were in various ways attracted because the work involved working and/or</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
interacting with people. Secondly, it enabled them to achieve positive outcomes for</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
the community, and in many cases this included the company. Words like ‘creative’,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
‘diverse’, ‘passion’, ‘exciting’, ‘interesting’, ‘variety’ and ‘rewarding’ featured</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
prominently in these explanations. Around 15 per cent of respondents indicated that</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
they were not working in community relations because they were attracted to it, but</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
rather, the function ‘came with the role’, or had been imposed upon them.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
12</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(b) </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">Work Priorities</span></i></b></div>
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">
</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span></i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
Respondents were asked to mark on a continuum what influenced their work priorities</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
– the community or the company. Most respondents indicated that they were more</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
influenced by corporate than community priorities (Figure 6). About 33per cent</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
marked the midpoint between the company and the community.</div>
</span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Figure 6: Source of Work Priorities</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="LEFT">
0%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
5%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
10%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
15%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
20%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
25%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
30%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Community</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
determined</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Equally</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
determined</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Company</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
determined</div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
n=89</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
(c) </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">Challenges</span></i></b></div>
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">
</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span></i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
Respondents were asked to describe some of the key challenges they faced working in</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
community relations in the minerals industry. Answers were analysed thematically,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
rather than quantitatively.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Challenges articulated by respondents were numerous and varied, although there were</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
some commonalities. Respondents suggested that balancing different priorities was a</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
key challenge, for example: the community’s desire for cash donations and the</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
company’s desire to move towards sustainable contributions; or the company’s desire</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
for a profit and the community’s desire to preserve their way of life. Other competing</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
priorities included dealing with: production vs community goals; strategic vs</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
immediate issues; internal vs external focus; individual vs collective priorities; rural</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
vs urban priorities; indigenous vs non-indigenous concerns; and a PR vs a community</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
relations focus.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Several respondents indicated that corporate policies had limited local relevance and</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
did not come with clear guidelines for implementation. Many listed</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
communication/engagement processes as a challenge as there were different</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
requirements and different methods to choose from. Other respondents indicated that</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
understanding the community posed a challenge, particularly in terms of complexity,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
divisions, emotions, conflict, politics and diversity. Some said that dealing with the</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
industry’s poor image was a constant challenge, as was dealing with government,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
particularly regarding provision of services. Respondents also indicated that they</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
often had limited control over their work and ended up ‘fixing’ problems as a result of</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
past practices. In addition, many said they had limited time and resources to do all that</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
was required of them.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
There were several organisational issues that posed challenges for workers, including:</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
internal politics; limited support from middle management; limited understanding of</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
13</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
their work by others; and not being perceived as ‘professional’. Many respondents</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
said they had limited career options, and had been provided with little in the way of</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
training or professional development.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
On a personal level, several respondents indicated their biggest challenge was living</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
and working in the local community. Several of the indigenous respondents said that</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
working with indigenous people came with its own set of issues that were seldom</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
recognised.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
In essence, community relations work appears to be complex, diverse and filled with</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
tension on several levels, including: the conceptual, organisational, professional, and</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
personal. It is important that workers are equipped to deal with these challenges if</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
minerals operations are to achieve enhanced social performance in line with corporate</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
and site policies and community expectations.</div>
</span><b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span></i></b><br />
<b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></i><br /></b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span></i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
(a) </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">Knowledge Sources</span></i></b></div>
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">
</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span></i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
On the whole, respondents did not appear to be consciously accessing or drawing on</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
established knowledge in sociology, social science, development or other related</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
disciplines in undertaking their work. Instead, they worked largely from a personal</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
orientation, rather than one grounded in social research or theory. This might go some</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
way to explaining why other occupational groups may not regard community relations</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
work as ‘professional’ in the traditional sense.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Workers were asked what they draw on in undertaking their work and were provided</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
with a list of 12 sources. The average number of sources nominated was 6-7. The</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
most common were personal and professional experience (84% and 82%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
respectively), followed by personal beliefs and values (71%) and personal knowledge</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(68%). The next most common cluster was corporate and/or site policies (63%) and</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
corporate values (55%). Theoretical knowledge and knowledge generated from</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
research did not rate highly compared to other categories.</div>
</span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Table 5: Knowledge Sources Utilised by Respondents</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
Knowledge Source %</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(n=91)*</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
Personal experience 84</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Professional experience 82</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Personal beliefs/values 71</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Personal knowledge 68</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Corporate and/or site policy 63</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
A colleague 57</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Corporate values 55</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Research 34</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Theoretical knowledge 34</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
A practice framework(s) 31</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
A mentor 24</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Spiritual orientation 8</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Other 3</div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
* Multiple responses permitted</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
14</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(b) </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">Knowledge Rating</span></i></b></div>
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">
</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span></i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
Despite the limited use of research, theory and practice frameworks and significant</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
reliance on the personal domain, most respondents rated their knowledge about</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
community relations fairly highly. On a scale of 1 – 5, (1 being the lowest), 80 per</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
cent rated their knowledge as either ‘reasonable’ or ‘good’. About 18 per cent rated</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
their knowledge as ‘very good’ and another very small proportion rated their</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
knowledge as either 1 or 2.</div>
</span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Figure 7: Self-rated Knowledge of the Community Relations Field</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="LEFT">
0%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
5%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
10%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
15%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
20%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
25%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
30%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
35%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
40%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
45%</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
V. poor Poor Reasonable Good V. good</div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
n=91</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
(c) </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">Training and Development</span></i></b></div>
<b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;">
</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span></i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,BoldItalic;"></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
One of the most notable findings of the survey was that workers had received limited</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
professional development opportunities specific to community relations. The majority</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(57) of all respondents indicated that they have </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Italic;">never </span></i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Italic;"></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">been offered training specific to</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
community relations in the minerals industry. Only one third (33%) had completed</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
such training</div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: xx-small;">6</span></span></b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">. Of those who had completed training, all said it had been either helpful</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
(83%) or partially helpful (17%) to their work.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
While community relations work may be a new and developing field of practice, the</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
pace of professional development does not seem to be keeping pace with the emphasis</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
the industry is placing on corporate social performance. Whilst it is acknowledged</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
that site-based community relations work is only one dimension of corporate social</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
performance, it appears that the professional development needs of workers may</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
require greater attention.</div>
</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="LEFT">
6 </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;">Respondents were asked to list the course they attended. It was not clear that these courses were necessarily</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="LEFT">
specific to the minerals industry, but they were community relations orientated.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
15</div>
</span><b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span></i></b><br />
<b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
WHAT PRACTITIONERS WANT</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></i><br /></b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span></i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
The majority of respondents (80%) volunteered suggestions about what was needed to better</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
support community relations workers. Additional training and professional development was</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
listed by almost half (45%) of all people who responded to this question. Several respondents</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
also indicated that professional networking and mentoring would assist them (16%). There</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
was an indication that some workers (20%) were seeking greater support from middle</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
management. Workers also suggested that they needed greater resources, both financial and</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
human (15%) and would be more effective if the community relations function was more</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
firmly embedded in organisational systems and processes (10%).</div>
</span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
Table 6: Additional Support Needs Identified by Respondents</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
Suggestion %</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
(n=73)*</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman; font-size: small;"><div align="LEFT">
Training and development 45</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Access to Professional Networks/Mentoring Opportunities 16</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Greater support from management and other employees 16</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
More resources 15</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Further embed community relations considerations in policy and</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
practice</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
10</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Greater clarity and direction 9</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Better access to knowledge/information/literature in the area 9</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Greater rewards and recognition 5</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Stronger policies and commitments to support community</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
relations activities</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
5</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
More experienced professionals in the area 5</div>
</span><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><div align="LEFT">
* Multiple responses permitted.</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Bold; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
Workers were clearly asking for training and development above all else. However, it should</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
be noted that implementing training solutions without addressing systemic issues, such as</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
recruitment and selection, professional support, organisational arrangements, management</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
commitment and organisational culture , may not be an effective strategy.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Meeting individual training needs will always be challenging considering the diversity of this</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
occupational group in terms of their prior qualifications and experience, work activities and</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
path of entry into the field of practice, site context and characteristics of the local community.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Flexible and individualised training may be necessary, along with other solutions.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
There have been recent moves within some of the major companies to identify community</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
relations competencies. While this is an encouraging development, competencies must not</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
become the only focus, as an over-emphasis in this area may relegate community relations to</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
a technical vocation rather than a professional discipline that fosters critical thinking and</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
awareness of the complex arrangements within which community relations takes place.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Workers must be provided opportunities to develop not only skills and competencies, but also</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
their knowledge of the social sciences, along with flexible and critical thinking that enables</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
them to build their capacity to understand, respond to and deal with the complexity, diversity</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
and tensions inherent in their work.</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
16</div>
</span><b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span></i></b><br />
<b><i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><div align="LEFT">
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS</div>
</span><br /></span><br /></i><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: Arial,BoldItalic; font-size: medium;"></span></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold;"><div align="LEFT">
Nature of the Work</div>
</span><br /></b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold;"></span><span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"><div align="LEFT">
• </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">Community relations practitioners work within a complex set of reporting and</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
organisational arrangements.</div>
</span><span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"><div align="LEFT">
• </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">The general nature of community relations work is diverse. The most common</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
community relations activities identified by the survey were: consultation and</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
engagement, public relations, sponsorship and donations, community programs and</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
responding to community complaints.</div>
</span><b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold;"></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold;"><div align="LEFT">
Gender</div>
</span><br /></b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold;"></span><span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"><div align="LEFT">
• </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">There is much greater involvement of women in community relations work than in the</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
industry as a whole.</div>
</span><b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold;"></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold;"><div align="LEFT">
Organisational Arrangements</div>
</span><br /></b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold;"></span><span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"><div align="LEFT">
• </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">Some workers would benefit from greater formalisation of their community relations</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
responsibilities.</div>
</span><span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"><div align="LEFT">
• </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">Practitioners can be grouped into: 1) specialist practitioners in a dedicated department,</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
and these who work in 2) Public Relations/External Affairs, 3) Environment or 4)</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
Human Resources.</div>
</span><span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"><div align="LEFT">
• </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">There was quite a large proportion of ‘sole practitioners’. Professional isolation may</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
be an issue for some of these practitioners.</div>
</span><span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"><div align="LEFT">
• </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">The majority or respondents indicated that community relations was a management</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
priority in their location, however a number expressed concern about the lack of</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
support from the human resources area.</div>
</span><b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold;"></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold;"><div align="LEFT">
Experience and Education</div>
</span><br /></b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold;"></span><span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"><div align="LEFT">
• </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">Community relations practitioners are, on the whole a well-educated group, although</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
most were not tertiary educated in a directly relevant discipline.</div>
</span><span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"><div align="LEFT">
• </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">Practitioners have considerable industry experience, but on the whole have low levels</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
of prior experience in community relations, either within or outside the industry.</div>
</span><span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"><div align="LEFT">
• </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">The industry has tended to recruit from ‘within’, with limited lateral entry from other</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
industries or sectors.</div>
</span><span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"><div align="LEFT">
• </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">Those entering the field from within the industry tend to come from technical</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
disciplines, rather than ‘people professions’.</div>
</span><b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold;"></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold;"><div align="LEFT">
Challenges</div>
</span><br /></b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold;"></span><span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"><div align="LEFT">
• </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">Common challenges listed by workers included: balancing different priorities, limited</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
local relevance of corporate policies, understanding the community, limited human</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
and financial resources, dealing with the industry’s poor image. Organisational</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
challenges included internal politics, limited support from middle management,</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
17</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
limited understanding of community relations work by others, and not being</div>
<br />
<div align="LEFT">
perceived as ‘professional’.</div>
</span><b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold;"></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold;"><div align="LEFT">
Professional Development</div>
</span><br /></b><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Bold;"></span><span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"><div align="LEFT">
• </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">The majority of respondents had </span><i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Italic;">never </span></i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman,Italic;"></span><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">been offered training specific to community</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
relations in the minerals industry.</div>
</span><span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"><div align="LEFT">
• </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">Only a minority of respondents had completed training specific to community</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
relations in the minerals industry.</div>
</span><span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"><div align="LEFT">
• </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">Workers indicated that they wanted more training and professional development.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: SymbolMT;"><div align="LEFT">
• </div>
</span><div align="LEFT">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">Workers also indicated that they wanted access to professional networks, greater</span></div>
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;"><div align="LEFT">
clarity and direction, better support from middle management, and further embedding</div>
<br />
of community relations in policy and practice.</span>NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-47934227661006305432015-01-16T10:42:00.002-08:002015-01-16T10:42:31.298-08:00Corporate Social Responsibility and Related Terms <div align="LEFT">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div align="CENTER">
<span style="font-size: x-large;">PART I </span></div>
<span style="font-size: x-large;"><dir>
</dir></span><dir><span style="font-size: x-large;">Corporate Social Responsibility and Related Terms </span></dir><span style="font-size: x-large;">
</span><span style="font-size: small;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Corporate Social Responsibility <br />
<br />
Strategic Corporate Social Responsibility <br />
<br />
Strategic Philanthropy <br />
<br />
Corporate Citizenship <br />
<br />
Sustainability <br />
<br />
Corporate Accountability <br />
<br />
Corporate Moral Agency <br />
<br />
Social Entrepreneurship<br />
</span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="CENTER">
1 </div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><div align="CENTER">
PART I: Corporate Social Responsibility and Related Terms</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="CENTER">
2</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-size: large;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><div align="CENTER">
CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY (CSR)</div>
</span><span></span><br />
<span><div align="JUSTIFY">
T</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">he concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) refers to the general belief held by many that modern businesses have a responsibility to society that extends beyond the stockholders or investors in the firm. That responsibility, of course, is to make money or profits for the owners. These other societal stakeholders typically include consumers, employees, the community at large, government, and the natural environment. The CSR concept applies to organizations of all sizes, but discussions tend to focus on large organizations because they tend to be more visible and have more power. And, as many have observed, with power comes responsibility.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">DEVELOPMENT OF THE CSR CONCEPT<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
The concept of CSR has a long and varied history. It is possible to trace evidences of the business community’s concern for society for centuries. Formal writings on CSR, or social responsibility (SR), however, are largely a product of the 20th century, especially the past 50 years. In addition, though it is possible to see footprints of CSR thought and practice throughout the world, mostly in developed countries, formal writings have been most evident in the United States, where a sizable body of literature has accumulated. In recent years, the continent of Europe has been captivated with CSR and has been strongly supporting the idea.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
A significant challenge is to decide how far back in time we should go to begin discussing the concept of CSR. A good case could be made for about 50 years because so much has occurred during that time that has shaped theory, research, and practice. Using this as a general guideline, it should be noted that references to a concern for SR appeared earlier than this, and especially during the 1930s and 1940s. References from this earlier period worth noting included Chester Barnard’s 1938 publication, </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">The Functions of the Executive, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">J. M. Clark’s </span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">Social Control of Business </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">from 1939, and Theodore Kreps’s </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="CENTER">
3</div>
</span><br /></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></i><br />
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Measurement of the Social Performance of Business </div>
</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">from 1940, just to mention a few. From a more practical point of view, it should be noted that as far back as 1946 business executives (the literature called them businessmen in those days) were polled by </span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">Fortune </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">magazine asking them about their social responsibilities.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
In the early writings on CSR, the concept was referred to more often as just SR rather than CSR. This may have been because the age of the modern corporation’s prominence and dominance in the business sector had not yet occurred or been noted. The 1953 publication by Howard R. Bowen of his landmark book </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">Social Responsibilities of the Businessman </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">is argued by many to mark the beginnings of the modern period of CSR. As the title of Bowen’s book suggests, there apparently were no </span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">businesswomen </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">during this period, or at least they were not acknowledged in formal writings.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Bowen’s work proceeded from the belief that the several hundred largest businesses at that time were vital centers of power and decision making and that the actions of these firms touched the lives of citizens at many points. Among the many questions raised by Bowen, one is of special note here. Bowen asked, what responsibilities to society may businessmen reasonably be expected to assume? This question drove much subsequent thought and is still relevant today. Bowen’s answer to the question was that businesspeople should assume the responsibility that is desirable in terms of the objectives and values of society. In other words, he was arguing that it is society’s expectations that drive the idea of SR.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Bowen went on to argue that CSR or the "social consciousness" of managers implied that businesspeople were responsible for the consequences of their actions in a sphere somewhat wider than that covered by their profit-and-loss statements. It is fascinating to note that when Bowen referenced the </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">Fortune </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">article cited earlier, it reported that 93.5% of the businessmen agreed with this idea of a wider SR. Because of his early and seminal work, Bowen might be called the "father of corporate social responsibility."</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
If there was scant evidence of CSR definitions in the literature in the 1950s and before, the decade of the 1960s marked a significant growth in attempts to formalize or more accurately state what CSR means. One of the first and most prominent writers in this period to define CSR was Keith Davis, then a professor at Arizona State University, who later extensively wrote about the topic in his business and society textbook, later revisions, and articles. Davis argued that SR refers to the decisions and actions that businesspeople </div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><div align="CENTER">
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </div>
</span><div align="CENTER">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="CENTER">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">4 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
take for reasons that are at least partially beyond the direct economic or technical interest of the firm.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Davis argued that SR is a nebulous idea that needs to be seen in a managerial context. Furthermore, he asserted that some socially responsible business decisions can be justified by a long, complicated process of reasoning as having a good chance of bringing long-run economic gain to the firm, thus paying it back for its socially responsible outlook. This has often been referred to as the enlightened self-interest justification for CSR. This view became commonly accepted in the late 1970s and 1980s.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Davis became well known for his views on the relationship between SR and business power. He set forth his now-famous </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">Iron Law of Responsibility, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">which held that the social responsibilities of businesspeople needed to be commensurate with their social power. Davis’s contributions to early definitions of CSR were so significant that he could well be argued to be the runner-up to Bowen for the "father of CSR" designation.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
The CSR concept became a favorite topic in management discussions during the 1970s. One reason for this is because the respected economist Milton Friedman came out against the concept. In a 1970 article for the </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">New York Times Magazine, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">Friedman summarized his position well with its title—"The Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits." For many years since and continuing today, Friedman has maintained his position. In spite of Friedman’s classic opposition, the CSR concept has continued to be accepted and has continued to grow.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
A landmark contribution to the concept of CSR came from the Committee for Economic Development (CED) in its 1971 publication </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">Social Responsibilities of Business Corporations. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">The CED got into this topic by observing that business functions by public consent, and its basic purpose is to serve constructively the needs of society to the satisfaction of society. The CED noted that the social contract between business and society was changing in substantial and important ways. It noted that business is being asked to assume broader responsibilities to society than ever before. Furthermore, the CED noted that business assumes a role in contributing to the quality of life and that this role is more than just providing goods and services. Noting that business, as an institution, exists to serve society, the future of business will be a direct result of how effectively managements of businesses respond to the expectations of the public, which are always changing. Public opinion polls taken during this early period by Opinion Research Corporation found that </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">5 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
about two thirds of the respondents thought business had a moral obligation with respect to achieving social progress in society, even at the possible expense of profitability.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
The CED went on to articulate a three-concentric-circles definition of SR that included an inner, an intermediate, and an outer circle. The </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">inner circle </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">focused on the basic responsibility business had for its economic function—that is, providing products, services, jobs, and economic growth. The </span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">intermediate circle </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">focused on responsibilities business had to exercise its economic activities in a sensitive way by always being alert to society’s changing social values and priorities. Some early arenas in which this sensitivity were to be expressed included environmental conservation; relationships with employees; and meeting the expectations of consumers for information, fair treatment, and protection from harm. The CED’s </span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">outer circle </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">referred to newly emerging and still ambiguous responsibilities that business should be involved in to help address problems in society, such as urban blight and poverty.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
What made the CED’s views on CSR especially noteworthy was that the CED was composed of businesspeople and educators and, thus, reflected an important practitioner view of the changing social contract between business and society and businesses’ newly emerging social responsibilities. It is helpful to note that the CED may have been responding to the times in that the late 1960s and early 1970s was a period during which social movements with respect to the environment, worker safety, consumers, and employees were poised to transition from special interest status to government regulation. In the early 1970s, we saw the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency, the Consumer Product Safety Commission, and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Thus, it can be seen that the major initiatives of government social regulation grew out of the changing climate with respect to CSR.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Another significant contributor to the development of CSR in the 1970s was George Steiner, then a professor at UCLA. In 1971, in the first edition of his textbook, </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">Business and Society, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">Steiner wrote extensively on the subject. Steiner continued to emphasize that business is fundamentally an economic institution in society but that it does have responsibilities to help society achieve its basic goals. Thus, SR goes beyond just profit making. Steiner also noted that as companies became larger their social responsibilities grew as well. Steiner thought the assumption of social responsibilities was more of an attitude, of the way a manager approaches his or her decision-making task, than a great shift in the economics of decision making. He held that CSR was </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><div align="CENTER">
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </div>
</span><div align="CENTER">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="CENTER">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">6 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
a philosophy that looks at the social interest and the enlightened self-interest of business over the long-run rather than just the old narrow, unrestrained short-run self-interest of the past.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Though Richard Eells and Clarence Walton addressed the CSR concept in the first edition of their book </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">Conceptual Foundations of Business </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">(1961), they elaborated on the concept at length in their third edition, which was published in 1974. In this book they dedicated a whole chapter to recent trends in corporate social responsibilities. Like Steiner, they did not focus on definitions, per se, but rather took a broader perspective on what CSR meant and how it evolved. Eels and Walton continued to argue that CSR is more concerned with the needs and goals of society and that these extend beyond the economic interest of the business firm. They believed that CSR was a concept that permits business to survive and function effectively in a free society and that the CSR movement is concerned with business’s role in supporting and improving the social order.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
In the 1970s, we initially found mention increasingly being made to CSP as well as CSR. One major writer to make this distinction was S. Prakash Sethi. In a classic 1975 article, Sethi identified what he called dimensions of CSP and, in the process, distinguished between corporate behavior that might be called social obligation, SR, or social responsiveness. In Sethi’s schema, social obligation was corporate behavior in response to market forces or legal constraints. The criteria here were economic and legal only. SR, in contrast, went beyond social obligation. He argued that SR implied bringing corporate behavior up to a level where it is congruent with the prevailing social norms, values, and expectations of society. Sethi went on to say that while social obligation is proscriptive in nature, SR is prescriptive in nature. The third stage in Sethi’s model was social responsiveness. He regarded this as the </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">adaptation </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">of corporate behavior to social needs. Thus, anticipatory and preventive action is implied.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Some of the earliest empirical research on CSR was published in the mid-1970s. First, in 1975, Bowman and Haire conducted a survey striving to understand CSR and to ascertain the extent to which companies were engaging in CSR. Though they never really defined CSR in the sense we have been discussing, the researchers chose to measure CSR by counting the proportion of lines devoted to SR in the annual reports of the companies they studied. While not providing a formal definition of CSR, they illustrated the kinds of topics that represented CSR as opposed to those that were strictly business in nature. The topics they used were usually subheads to sections in the annual </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">7 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
report. Some of these subheads were as follows: corporate responsibility, SR, social action, public service, corporate citizenship, public responsibility, and social responsiveness. A review of their topical approach indicates that they had a good idea of what CSR generally meant, given the kinds of definitions we saw developing in the 1970s.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Another research study in the mid-1970s was conducted by Sandra Holmes in which she sought to determine executive perceptions of CSR. Like Bowman and Haire, Holmes had no clear definition of CSR. Rather, she chose to present executives with a set of statements about CSR, seeking to find out how many of them agreed or disagreed with the statements. Like the Bowman and Haire list of "topics," Holmes’s statements addressed the issues that were generally believed to be what CSR was all about during this time period. For example, she sought executive opinions on businesses’ responsibilities for making a profit, abiding by regulations, helping to solve social problems, and the short-run and long-run impacts on profits of such activities. Holmes further added to the body of knowledge about CSR by identifying the outcomes that executives expected from their firms’ social involvement and the factors executives used in selecting areas of social involvement.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
In 1979, Archie B. Carroll proposed a four-part definition of CSR, which was embedded in a conceptual model of CSP. Like Sethi’s earlier article, Carroll sought to differentiate between CSR and CSP. His basic argument was that for managers or firms to engage in CSP they needed to have (1) a basic </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">definition </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">of CSR, (2) an understanding/enumeration of the </span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">issues </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">for which a SR existed (or, in modern terms, stakeholders to whom the firm had a responsibility, relationship, or dependency), and (3) a specification of the </span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">philosophy or pattern of responsiveness </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">to the issues.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
At that time, Carroll noted that previous definitions had alluded to businesses’ responsibility to make a profit, obey the law, and to go beyond these activities. Also, he observed that, to be complete, the concept of CSR had to embrace a full range of responsibilities of business to society. In addition, some clarification was needed regarding that component of CSR that extended beyond making a profit and obeying the law. Therefore, Carroll proposed that the SR of business encompassed the economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary expectations that society had of organizations at a given point in time.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
A brief elaboration of this definition is useful. First, and foremost, Carroll argued that business has a responsibility that is </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">economic </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">in nature or kind. Before anything else, the business institution is the basic economic unit in society. As such it has a responsibility to produce goods and services that society </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><div align="CENTER">
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </div>
</span><div align="CENTER">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="CENTER">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">8 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
wants and to sell them at a profit. All other business roles are predicated on this fundamental assumption. The economic component of the definition suggests that society </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">expects </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">business to produce goods and services and sell them at a profit. This is how the capitalistic economic system is designed and functions.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
He also noted that just as society expects business to make a profit (as an incentive and reward) for its efficiency and effectiveness, society expects business to obey the law. The law, in its most rudimentary form, represents the basic rules of the game by which business is expected to function. Society expects business to fulfill its economic mission within the framework of legal requirements set forth by the society’s legal system. Thus, the </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">legal </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">responsibility is the second part of Carroll’s definition.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
The next two responsibilities represented Carroll’s attempt to specify the nature or character of the responsibilities that extended beyond obedience to the law. The </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">ethical </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">responsibility was claimed to represent the kinds of behaviors and ethical norms that society expected business to follow. These ethical responsibilities extended to actions, decisions, and practices that are beyond what is required by the law. Though they seem to be always expanding, they nevertheless exist as expectations over and beyond legal requirements.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Finally, he argued there are </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">discretionary </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">responsibilities. These represent voluntary roles and practices that business assumes but for which society does not provide as clear cut an expectation as in the ethical responsibility. These are left to individual managers’ and corporations’ judgment and choice; therefore, they were referred to as discretionary. Regardless of their voluntary nature, the expectation that business perform these was still held by society. This expectation was driven by social norms. The specific activities were guided by businesses’ desire to engage in social roles not mandated, not required by law, and not expected of businesses in an ethical sense, but which were becoming increasingly strategic. Examples of these voluntary activities, during the time in which it was written, included making philanthropic contributions, conducting in-house programs for drug abusers, training the hard-core unemployed, or providing day care centers for working mothers. These discretionary activities were analogous to the CED’s third circle (helping society). Later, Carroll began calling this fourth category </span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">philanthropic, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">because the best examples of it were charitable, humanistic activities business undertook to help society along with its own interests.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Though Carroll’s 1979 definition included an economic responsibility, many today still think of the economic component as what the business</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">9 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
firm </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">does for itself </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">and the legal, ethical, and discretionary (or philanthropic) components as what business </span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">does for others. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">While this distinction represents the more commonly held view of CSR, Carroll continued to argue that economic performance is something business does for society as well, though society seldom looks at it in this way.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">EXAMPLES OF CSR IN PRACTICE<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
There are many ways in which companies may manifest their CSR in their communities and abroad. Most of these initiatives would fall in the category of discretionary, or philanthropic, activities, but some border on improving some ethical situation for the stakeholders with whom they come into contact. Common types of CSR initiatives include corporate contributions (or philanthropy), employee volunteerism, community relations, becoming an outstanding employer for specific employee groups (such as women, older workers, or minorities), making environmental improvements that exceed what is required by law, and so on.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Among the 100 Best Corporate Citizens identified in 2005 by </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">Business Ethics </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">magazine, a number of illuminating examples of CSR in practice are provided. Cummins, Inc., of Columbus, Indiana, has reduced diesel engine emissions by 90% and expects that within 10 years the company will be at zero or close to zero emissions. In addition, the engine maker underwrites the development of schools in China, is purchasing biodiverse forest land in Mexico, and funds great architecture in its local community. Cummins also publishes a sustainability report that is available to the public.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Xerox Corporation, Stamford, Connecticut, is a multinational corporation that places high value on its communities. One of its most well-known community development traditions has been its Social Service Leave Program. Employees selected for the program may take a year off with full pay and work for a community nonprofit organization of their choice. The program was begun in 1971, and by 2005, more than 460 employees had been granted leave, translating into about half a million volunteer service hours for the program.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Green Mountain Coffee Roasters, Waterbury, Vermont, was a pioneer in an innovative program designed to help struggling coffee growers by paying them "fair trade" prices, which exceed regular market prices. The company has also been recognized for offering microloans to coffee-growing families and underwriting business ventures that diversify agricultural economies.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><div align="CENTER">
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </div>
</span><div align="CENTER">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="CENTER">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">10 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Another example of CSR in practice is the Chick-fil-A restaurant chain based in Atlanta, Georgia. Founder and CEO Truett Cathy has earned an outstanding reputation as a businessman deeply concerned with his employees and communities. Through the WinShape Centre Foundation, funded by Chick-fil-A, the company operates foster homes for more than 120 children, sponsors a summer camp, and has hosted more than 21,000 children since 1985. Chick-fil-A has also sponsored major charity golf tournaments.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
In the immediate aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in 2005, judged to be the worst and most expensive ever in terms of destruction, hundreds of companies made significant contributions to the victims and to the cities of New Orleans, Biloxi, Gulfport, and the entire Gulf Coast. These CSR efforts have been noted as one of the important ways by which business can help people and communities in need.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
As seen in the examples presented, there are a multitude of ways that companies have manifested their corporate social responsibilities with respect to communities, employees, consumers, competitors, and the natural environment.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">CSR IN THE NEW MILLENNIUM<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
As we think about the importance of CSR/CSP in the new millennium, it is useful to review the results of the millennium poll on CSR that was sponsored by Environics, International, the Prince of Wales Business Leaders Forum, and the Conference Board. This poll included 1,000 persons in 23 countries on six continents. The results of the poll revealed how important citizens of the world now thought CSR really was. The poll found that in the 21st century, companies would be expected to do all the following: demonstrate their commitment to society’s values on social, environmental, and economic goals through their actions; fully insulate society from the negative impacts of company actions; share the benefits of company activities with key stakeholders, as well as shareholders, and demonstrate that the company can be more profitable by doing the right thing. This "doing well by doing good" approach will reassure stakeholders that new behaviors will outlast good intentions. Finally, it was made clear that CSR/CSP is now a global expectation that requires a comprehensive, strategic response.</div>
<br />
<div align="RIGHT">
—Archie B. Carroll</div>
</span><div align="RIGHT">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="RIGHT">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">11 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Further Readings<br />
<dir>
</dir></span><dir></dir></span><dir><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Ackerman, R. W. (1973). How companies respond to social demands. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Harvard Business Review, 51</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(4), 88–98.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Ackerman, R. W., & Bauer, R. A. (1976). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Corporate social responsiveness. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Reston, VA: Reston.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Asmus, P. (2005). 100 Best corporate citizens. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Business Ethics, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Spring, 20–27.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Aupperle, K. E., Carroll, A. B., & Hatfield, J. D. (1985). An empirical investigation of the relationship between corporate social responsibility and profitability. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Academy of Management Journal, 28, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">446–463.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Backman, J. (Ed.). (1975). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Social responsibility and accountability. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">New York: New York University Press.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Barnard, C. I. (1938). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">The functions of the executive. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Bowen, H. R. (1953). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Social responsibilities of the businessman. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">New York: Harper & Brothers.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Carroll, A. B. (1979). A three-dimensional conceptual model of corporate social performance. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Academy of Management Review, 4, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">497–505.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Carroll, A. B. (1991, July/August). The pyramid of corporate social responsibility: Toward the moral management of organizational stakeholders. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Business Horizons, 34, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">39–48.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Carroll, A. B. (1999). Corporate social responsibility: Evolution of a definitional construct. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Business & Society, 38</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(3), 268–295.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Carroll, A. B., & Buchholtz, A. K. (2006). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Business and society: Ethics and stakeholder management </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(6th ed.). Cincinnati, OH: South-Western/Thomson.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Committee for Economic Development (CED). (1971, June). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Social responsibilities of business corporations. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">New York: Author.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Davis, K. (1960, Spring). Can business afford to ignore social responsibilities? </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">California Management Review, II, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">70–76.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Davis, K. (1973). The case for and against business assumption of social responsibilities. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Academy of Management Journal, 16, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">312–322.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Davis, K., & Blomstrom, R. L. (1966). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Business and its environment. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">New York: McGraw-Hill.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Drucker, P. F. (1984). The new meaning of corporate social responsibility. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">California Management Review, XXVI, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">53–63.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Eels, R., & Walton, C. (1974). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Conceptual foundations of business </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(3rd ed.). Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Epstein, E. M. (1987). The corporate social policy process: Beyond business ethics, corporate social responsibility, and corporate social responsiveness. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">California Management Review, XXIX, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">99–114.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Frederick, W. C. (1960). The growing concern over business responsibility. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">California Management Review, 2, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">54–61.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Frederick, W. C. (1978). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">From CSR</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">1 </span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">to CSR</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">2</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">: The maturing of business and society thought. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Working Paper No. 279, Graduate School of Business, University of Pittsburgh.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span></dir><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><div align="CENTER">
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </div>
</span><div align="CENTER">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="CENTER">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">12 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><dir>
</dir></span><dir></dir></span><dir><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Friedman, M. (1962). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Capitalism and freedom. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Griffin, J. J. (2000). Corporate social performance: Research directions for the 21st century. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Business & Society, 39</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(4), 479–491.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Griffin, J. J., & Mahon, J. F. (1997). The corporate social performance and corporate financial performance debate: Twenty-five years of incomparable research. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Business & Society, 36, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">5–31.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Harrison, J. S., & Freeman, R. E. (1999, October). Stakeholders, social responsibility, and performance: Empirical evidence and theoretical perspectives. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Academy of Management Journal, 1999, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">479–485.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Husted, B. W. (2000). A contingency theory of corporate social performance. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Business & Society, 39</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(1), 24–48.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Jones, T. M. (1980, Spring). Corporate social responsibility revisited, redefined. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">California Management Review, 1980, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">59–67.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Manne, H. G., & Wallich, H. C. (1972). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">The modern corporation and social responsibility. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
McGuire, J. W. (1963). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Business and society. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">New York: McGraw-Hill.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Parket, I. R., & Eilbirt, H. (1975, August). Social responsibility: The underlying factors. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Business Horizons, XVIII, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">5–10.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Preston, L. E. (1975). Corporation and society: The search for a paradigm. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Journal of Economic Literature, XIII, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">434–453.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Preston, L. E., & Post, J. E. (1975). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Private management and public policy: The principle of public responsibility. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Rowley, T., & Berman, S. (2000). A brand new brand of corporate social performance. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Business & Society, 39</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(4), 397–418.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Schwartz, M. S., & Carroll, A. B. (2003). Corporate social responsibility: A three domain approach. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Business Ethics Quarterly, 13</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(4), 503–530.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Sethi, S. P. (1975, Spring). Dimensions of corporate social performance: An analytic framework. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">California Management Review, XVII, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">58–64.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Steiner, G. A. (1971). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Business and society. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">New York: Random House.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Swanson, D. L. (1995). Addressing a theoretical problem by reorienting the corporate social performance model. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Academy of Management Review, 20, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">43–64.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Wartick, S. L., & Cochran, P. L. (1985). The evolution of the corporate social performance model. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Academy of Management Review, 10, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">758–769.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Wood, D. J. (1991). Corporate social performance revisited. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Academy of Management Review, 16, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">691–718.</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">13 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span></dir><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-size: large;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><div align="CENTER">
STRATEGIC CORPORATESOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY</div>
</span><span></span><br />
<span><div align="JUSTIFY">
S</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">trategic corporate social responsibility is the attempt by companies to link those largely discretionary activities explicitly intended to improve some aspect of society or the natural environment with their strategies and core business activities. While corporate social responsibility has historically referred to a firm’s economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary responsibilities to society, strategic corporate social responsibility, in general, represents discretionary activities that form a company’s community relations function or foundation, including corporate philanthropy, volunteerism, and multisector collaborations. Corporate social responsibility can be compared with the mere general concept of corporate responsibility, which is a company’s complete set of responsibilities to its stakeholders, societies where it operates, and the natural environment, as manifested through its operating practices.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Corporate social responsibility represents the direct efforts by a company to improve aspects of society by the firm as compared with the integral responsibilities that every firm has with respect to primary stakeholders such as employees, customers, investors, and suppliers. The use of the term </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">strategic </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">implies that the discretionary socially oriented activities of the firm are intended to have direct or indirect benefits for the firm—that is, to somehow help the firm achieve its strategic and economic objectives. There is a wide range of ways in which companies can use corporate social responsibility activities strategically. These ways range from helping local schools improve so that, long term, the workforce will be better educated, to improving local conditions in the community so that it will be easier to recruit and retain employees, to improving the firm’s reputation among customers so that they will continue to use the company’s products and services, as well as numerous other examples.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Sometimes termed </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">enlightened self-interest, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">strategic corporate social responsibility initiatives are closely linked to strategic philanthropy and cause marketing. They attempt to help achieve a company’s core mission and strategies by providing a socially beneficial foundation for enhanced economic </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><div align="CENTER">
Strategic Corporate SocialResponsibility</div>
</span><div align="CENTER">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="CENTER">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">14 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
value added. This benefit to the firm happens through improved reputation from the social desirability that key stakeholders, such as customers and employees, feel for being affiliated in some way with a company perceived to be more socially responsible or, more directly, through increased use of the company’s products and services that are tied to donations to specific charitable organizations.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Some observers object to strategic corporate social responsibility on the grounds that the company cannot or should not both be doing moral or social good while also profiting financially. Other observers see no necessary conflict in what is called doing well and doing good, because for companies that are under increasing pressure for good short-term results, strategic corporate social responsibility represents a way for them to attempt to meet the needs of multiple stakeholders, particularly investors and societal stakeholders, including customers, employees, and investors concerned with corporate responsibility, simultaneously.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
There is significant and growing evidence from a large number of research studies that companies that are more socially responsible, or more responsible in general to all their stakeholders, perform at the same level or somewhat better than less responsible companies. This empirical evidence suggests that there are no necessary trade-offs between profitability in terms of financial performance and responsibility, even explicitly socially beneficial activities. Companies with good corporate social responsibility records, according to employee and consumer surveys, may find it easier to recruit and retain employees, attract and keep new customers, and even attract investors concerned about issues of corporate responsibility, also called socially responsible or ethical investors.</div>
<br />
<div align="RIGHT">
—Sandra Waddock</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Further Readings<br />
<dir>
</dir></span><dir></dir></span><dir><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Gourville, J. T., & Kasturi Rangan, V. (2004). Valuing the cause marketing relationship. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Harvard Business Review, 47</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(1), 38–57.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Lantos, G. P. (2001). The boundaries of strategic corporate social responsibility. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Journal of Consumer Marketing, 18</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(7), 595–630.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Phillips, R. (2000). The corporate community builders: Using corporate strategic philanthropy for economic development. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Economic Development Review, Summer, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">7–11.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span></dir><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><div align="CENTER">
PART I: Corporate Social Responsibility and Related Terms</div>
<br />
<div align="CENTER">
Strategic Philanthropy </div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-size: large;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><div align="CENTER">
STRATEGIC PHILANTHROPY</div>
</span><span></span><br />
<span><div align="JUSTIFY">
S</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">trategic philanthropy is an approach by which corporate or business giving and other philanthropic endeavors of a firm are designed in such a way that it best fits with the firm’s overall mission, goals, and values. This implies that the business has a carefully articulated strategy and that it understands how to integrate its philanthropic initiatives with this strategy in actual practice. A major characteristic of strategic philanthropy is that the motivation is not solely altruistic. To understand how strategic philanthropy has become an everyday practice, it is useful to trace this concept as it has unfolded in business history.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">BEGINNINGS OF CORPORATE PHILANTHROPY<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
The concept of philanthropy evolved through business history even before the broader corporate social responsibility movement had taken shape. The concept of business responsibility that prevailed in the United States during most of its history was fashioned after the traditional, or classical, </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">economic model </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">of the firm. Dominant in the late 1800s and early 1900s, the economic model of the firm thought of the marketplace as the primary determinant of what business firms did in their communities and in society. The pattern of corporate philanthropy in Europe and other parts of the Western world paralleled its development in the United States. Unfortunately, though the marketplace did a reasonably good job in deciding what goods and services should be produced, it did not fare as well in ensuring that business always acted generously, fairly, and ethically. In addition, business created many social problems and the view was developing that business had some responsibility for these social problems that extended beyond just producing goods and services.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Years later, when laws began to be passed constraining business practices, it might be said that a </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">legal model </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">emerged. Society’s expectations of business changed from being strictly economic in nature to encompassing issues that previously had been at business’s discretion. Over time, a </span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">social model </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">of the firm emerged. What this social model did, in effect, is embrace both the </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">15 </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">16 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
economic and legal emphases and add yet another layer of expectations by society that business would assume some role in addressing social problems and issues that had arisen.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, initial indications of business’s willingness to contribute to the community were localized efforts toward meeting community needs through philanthropy, or business giving, and paternalistic practices. It is evident that businesspeople did engage in philanthropy— contributions to charity and other worthy causes—even during the periods that were dominated by the traditional economic view. Voluntary activities to improve, beautify, and uplift the community were evident. One very early example of this was the cooperative efforts between the railroads and the Young Men’s Christian Association immediately after the Civil War to provide community services in areas affected by the railroads. These initiatives, in hindsight, can now be seen as early examples of strategic philanthropy, because they benefited both the communities and the railroads.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
The emergence of large corporations during the late 1800s played a major role in hastening the movement away from the strict classical economic model of the firm in society. As the economy transitioned away from one dominated by small, powerless companies to large corporations with more concentrated power, questions of business responsibility began to be raised. By the 1920s, community service had become much more important for business. The most visible example of this was the Community Chest movement, which received its impetus from business.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
One example of early progressive business ideology was reflected in Andrew Carnegie’s 1889 essay "The Gospel of Wealth." Carnegie asserted that business must pursue profits but that business wealth should also be used for the benefit of the community. Philanthropy turned out to be one of the best ways in which firms could benefit the community. A prime example of this was Carnegie’s funding and building of more than 2,500 libraries for communities.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Corporate philanthropy continued to grow into the 20th century and by the late 20th century had become one of the institutionalized ways by which businesses could aid communities, the growing number of nonprofit organizations, and other national and international groups. Today, corporate philanthropy is considered to be one of the foremost means by which companies fulfill their social responsibilities and come to be regarded as good corporate citizens.</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Str ategic Philanthrop y </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">17 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PHILANTHROPY DEFINED<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Before developing the concept of strategic philanthropy further, it is useful first to examine the concept of philanthropy itself. The word </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">philanthropy </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">has generally been defined as a concern for or love of humankind. Philanthropy has been linked to efforts to demonstrate this fondness or concern for humankind through charitable gifts, aid, or donations. Though most people would not philosophically disagree with the concept of philanthropy, throughout history some have. Friedrich Nietzsche, for example, objected to it as a concept of universal good because he thought it represented the weak parasitically living off the strong. Ayn Rand is another major philosopher who held a similar view. Political views on philanthropy have also been present. Most governments have been supportive of philanthropic efforts on the part of companies and individuals and have supported these efforts through tax incentives and tax breaks. Though the term </span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">philanthropy </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">seems to imply some altruistic expression, as in "love of humankind," today the concept more nearly refers to the giving of resources for the benefit of others.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Conceptually, today, philanthropy may be seen as a part of companies’ corporate social responsibility or corporate citizenship initiatives. Archie Carroll has argued that philanthropy fulfills businesses’ discretionary responsibilities to be good corporate citizens. These philanthropic activities are voluntary, guided only by businesses’ desire to engage in social activities that are not mandated, not required by law, and not generally expected in an ethical sense. Philanthropy is "desired/expected" in most societies. The public has an expectation that business will engage in philanthropy, in part because it has become so much a part of business tradition and in part because many believe it is part of the social contract between business and society, especially between business and the local community. Others believe business should engage in philanthropy to partially offset some of the social harm or social problems business has engendered.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
By the first decade of the 2000s, philanthropic initiatives include corporate giving, matching programs in which companies match contributions given by their employees, product and service donations, employee volunteerism, partnerships with local governments and other organizations, and any other kind of community involvement on the part of the organization and its employees. These philanthropic initiatives are in response to ongoing needs in the community in areas such as education, culture and the arts, health/human </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">18 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
services, and civic and community activities. In addition, special needs arise due to emergencies such as the tsunami in Southeast Asia in 2004 and Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in the United States in 2005.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">STRATEGIC PHILANTHROPY TAKES SHAPE AND EVOLVES<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
The concept of strategic philanthropy has evolved out of traditional forms of business giving. Early on, corporate giving was more focused on the needs that had arisen in the community and so philanthropy was more altruistic in nature—more focused on an exclusive consideration of the needs of others. With the passage of time and the heightened competition and cost pressures that have characterized the business community in the past several decades, corporate executives have begun looking more carefully at the kinds of impacts philanthropic efforts might have. It has become evident that business can not only help others but help itself at the same time, and this germ of thought is what has produced the modern strategic philanthropy emphasis. At the same time, corporate giving has become institutionalized and professionalized, and as it has been turned over to professional managers, top management has come to view the giving function as one that should deliver more specific, direct benefits to the company, and thus, the idea of strategic philanthropy has been born and cultivated in a business climate that has been more driven by profitability and accountability toward the bottom line.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Strategic philanthropy is an approach to business giving that seeks to achieve goals for the community or recipient of the giving and for the business itself as well. Strategic philanthropy is more focused. It does not just address any legitimate need in the community but rather focuses on those needs or issues that are consistent with or aligned with the firm’s overall mission, objectives, programs, or products/services. A classic example of strategic philanthropy is the Ronald McDonald Houses sponsored by McDonald’s hamburger chain. The Ronald McDonald Houses are facilities usually built near children’s hospitals to help families who want to be close to their children who may be receiving longer-term treatment at the hospital. The Ronald McDonald House Charities maintains more than 200 houses in 44 countries around the world where families can stay together for free when traveling for a sick child’s treatment and 48 rooms within hospitals for the same purpose. McDonald’s, which has long viewed children as one of its target markets, thus is able to generously contribute to children and their families, thus enhancing its own interest or strategy at the same time. The children and their families </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Str ategic Philanthrop y </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">19 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
win and McDonald’s as a corporation wins. It should be clarified that McDonald’s, as a company, initiated and sponsors the Ronald McDonald House Charities, but many other companies also contribute to the charity. In addition, each chapter also relies on individual contributions. In a sense, then, this is an ideal example of strategic philanthropy in that McDonald’s gets high name recognition and publicity for the charity, even though the company is just one of the many supporters of the charity.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
In using strategic philanthropy, companies strive to align their corporate giving or community relations initiatives with their own goals, objectives, or markets. The idea is to have a double impact—a positive impact on the recipients of the philanthropy and some kind of positive impact on the businesses’ bottom lines or strategies. Two other examples are worthy of mention. The first is Novartis’ creation of its nonprofit, Novartis Research Institute for Tropical Diseases. The nonprofit Institute allows it to focus on the discovery of new drugs for treating neglected diseases. The company benefits and the victims of neglected diseases benefit. Second is IBM’s On Demand Community Program. This program permits IBM employees around the world to share the company’s technology and other resources with the agencies where they sign up for volunteer service. Both parties benefit.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Strategic management expert Michael Porter has argued that the term </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">strategic philanthropy </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">has begun to be used to explain virtually any type of charitable giving that has some definable theme, focus, or approach that builds bridges between the businesses that are giving and needs in the community. Porter has been critical of strategic philanthropy, arguing that the link between the companies and the charities are often weak, tenuous, or semantic. He suspects that most of these initiatives really do not have anything at all to do with corporate strategy but are aimed at achieving positive publicity or goodwill for the companies and for improving employees’ morale. His belief is that for strategic philanthropy to be viewed as genuine or valid, it needs to effectively integrate social and economic goals in such a way so as to produce legitimate social impact in the community. Of course, his criticisms may be broadened to include any corporate citizenship initiatives on the part of business, not just philanthropy.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">CAUSE-RELATED MARKETING<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
One of the shapes or variations that strategic philanthropy has taken on is that of cause-related marketing, or cause marketing. Many critics claim that this is more marketing than philanthropy, but others have held that it is an extreme </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">20 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
form of strategic philanthropy in that the link between the businesses’ interest and some social or public cause is tightly tied together. In cause marketing, each time a consumer uses a service or buys a product, a donation is given by the company to the charity. Thus, cause marketing has sometimes been referred to as "quid pro quo philanthropy."</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
One of the earliest examples of cause-related marketing was in the early 1980s when American Express Company introduced a program whereby it would contribute 1 cent to the restoration of the Statue of Liberty each time one of its credit cards was used to make a purchase. This initiative generated $1.7 million for the restoration of the historical monument and a substantial increase in the use of the company’s cards. Today, American Express coordinates its philanthropic and marketing efforts with its community business program and cause-related-marketing campaign to help small business owners acquire access to the credit and resources they need to start or grow their businesses. So the company now gives a portion of credit card charges to three national nonprofit organizations specializing in community economic development when American Express Community Business Card customers use their cards. Today, many different companies have linked using their products or services to the amount they would then donate to some worthy charitable cause.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Just as Porter has been critical of strategic philanthropy, he has especially been critical of cause-related marketing. He thinks these efforts are more targeted toward improving the companies’ reputations than doing good in the community and, thus, fail as authentic efforts toward strategic philanthropy. In his view, the best way to maximize philanthropy’s value is to follow a path that effectively combines pure philanthropy with pure business in such a way that genuine social and economic values are created.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">THE BUSINESS CASE FOR STRATEGIC PHILANTHROPY<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
The impetus behind the movement toward strategic philanthropy has been the expectation by CEOs and top echelon executives that for corporate giving to continue, the "business case" for it has to be established. The business case is the argument or rationale as to how the business is specifically benefiting from the philanthropic endeavors. It is the explication of reasons why business is believed to be benefited by the philanthropy. One of the leading business </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Str ategic Philanthrop y </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">21 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
groups supporting the idea of strategic philanthropy is Business for Social Responsibility (BSR), a nonprofit association of firms and executives who support the idea of integrating business’s social role with its economic objectives. BSR has assembled research that indicates that companies, through their philanthropic giving, may</div>
<dir>
<dir>
<div align="JUSTIFY">
••increase customer loyalty and enhance brand image,</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY">
••strengthen employee loyalty and productivity,</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY">
••enhance corporate reputation, and</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY">
••expand into emerging markets.</div>
</dir>
</dir>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
In short, specific business advantages that strengthen the companies’ bottom lines are achievable through carefully designed philanthropic initiatives.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
An interesting aspect of strategic philanthropy is that two firms in the same industry may decide to pursue divergent philanthropic projects and initiatives while both are focusing on the bottom-line benefits to the company as well as helping the community. In the home improvement/products industry, for example, The Home Depot supports sustainable forestry, community impact grants, and volunteerism, while Lowe’s, its major competitor, supports Habitat for Humanity, sponsorship of American Red Cross disaster relief, and community college scholarships. Executives in these two firms made strategic choices to engage different philanthropies but with doubtless similar objectives in terms of strategic impact on the company’s profitability and reputation.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Since strategic philanthropy is a part of corporate social responsibility initiatives, it follows that these same benefits accrue due to these efforts. Also, it can readily be seen that most of these reasons are business related, not philanthropy related. Thus, the business case is strengthened. Finally, it is worth noting that Paul Godfrey has developed and presented an analysis of literature and research that supports the idea that (a) corporate philanthropy can generate positive moral capital among stakeholders and communities, (b) this moral capital can provide business owners with insurance-like protection for a firm’s relationship-based intangible assets, and (c) this protection contributes to shareholder wealth. Thus, through logic and research, he has added to the business case for corporate philanthropy, especially strategic philanthropy.</div>
<br />
<div align="RIGHT">
—Archie B. Carroll</div>
</span><div align="RIGHT">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="RIGHT">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">22 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Further Readings<br />
<dir>
</dir></span><dir></dir></span><dir><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Burlingame, D. F., & Young, D. R. (Eds). (1996). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Corporate philanthropy at the crossroads. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Bloomington: Indiana University Press.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Business for Social Responsibility. (2005). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Issue brief: Philanthropy. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Retrieved from www.bsr.org</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Carroll, A. B., & Buchholtz, A. K. (2006). Business and community stakeholders. In </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Business and society: Ethics and stakeholder management </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(6th ed., pp. 471–504). Mason, OH: South-Western.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Epstein, K. (2005). Philanthropy, Inc.: How today’s corporate donors want their gifts to help the bottom line. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Stanford Social Innovation Review, Summer, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">21–27.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Godfrey, P. C. (2005). The relationship between corporate philanthropy and shareholder wealth: A risk management perspective. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Academy of Management Review, 30</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(4), 777–798.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Logsdon, J., Reiner, M., & Burke, L. (1990). Corporate philanthropy: Strategic responses to the firm’s stakeholders. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 19</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(2), 93–109.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Porter, M. E., & Kramer, M. R. (2002). The competitive advantage of corporate philanthropy. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Harvard Business Review, December, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">57–68.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Saiia, D. H., Carroll, A. B., & Buchholtz, A. K. (2003). Philanthropy as strategy: When corporate charity begins at home. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Business and Society, 42</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(2), 169–201.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Smith, C. (1996). The new corporate philanthropy. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Harvard Business Review, 72</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(3), 105–115.</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Corpor ate Citizenship </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">23 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span></dir><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-size: large;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><div align="CENTER">
CORPORATE CITIZENSHIP</div>
</span><span></span><br />
<span><div align="JUSTIFY">
C</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">orporate citizenship, sometimes called corporate responsibility, can be defined as the ways in which a company’s strategies and operating practices affect its stakeholders, the natural environment, and the societies where the business operates. In this definition, corporate citizenship encompasses the concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR), which involves companies’ explicit and mainly discretionary efforts to improve society in some way, but is also directly linked to the company’s business model in that it requires companies to pay attention to all their impacts on stakeholders, nature, and society. Corporate citizenship is, in this definition, integrally linked to the social, ecological, political, and economic impacts that derive from the company’s business model; how the company actually does business in the societies where it operates; and how it handles its responsibilities to stakeholders and the natural environment. Corporate citizenship is also associated with the rights and responsibilities granted to a company or organization by governments where the enterprise operates; just as individual citizenship carries rights and responsibilities, however, companies have considerably more resources and power than do most individuals and do not have the right to vote.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
While CSR has historically referred to a company’s economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary responsibilities, corporate citizenship emphasizes the integral responsibilities attendant to a company’s strategies and practices. There are other definitions of corporate citizenship, but they are generally consistent with the theme of integrating social, ecological, and stakeholder responsibilities into the companies’ business strategies and practices. For example, the United Nations’ definition states that corporate citizenship is the integration of social and environmental concerns into business policies and operations. The U.S. association Business for Social Responsibility defines it as operating a business in a manner that meets or exceeds the legal, ethical, commercial, and public expectations that society has of business. The definition of the Center for Corporate Citizenship at Boston College requires that a good corporate citizen integrate basic social values with everyday business practices, operations, and policies so that these values influence daily decision </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">24 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
making across all aspects of the business and takes into account its impact on all stakeholders, including employees, customers, communities, suppliers, and the natural environment.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
The definition of the Corporate Citizenship Unit at Great Britain’s University of Warwick Business School indicates that corporate citizenship involves the study of a broad range of issues, including community investment, human rights, corporate governance, environmental policy and practice, social and environmental reporting, social auditing, stakeholder consultation, and responsible supply chain management. Australia’s Deakin University’s Corporate Citizenship Research claims that corporate citizenship recognizes business’s social, cultural, and environmental responsibilities to the community in which the business seeks a license to operate and recognizes economic and financial obligations to shareholders and stakeholders.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">BACKGROUND<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
The term </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">corporate citizenship </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">as applied to companies’ core business practices, strategies, and impacts became popular particularly in the European Union in the mid-1990s but has been in use at least since the 1950s. The terminology evolved from earlier conceptions of business in society, particularly from the concept of CSR, which connotes doing explicit good for society mainly through philanthropy and is considered voluntary on the part of companies. Although some scholars and practicing managers do define corporate citizenship more narrowly than the definitions above, believing that discretionary activities on the part of companies to deliberately improve societies constitute corporate citizenship initiatives, most of the business associations and centers in academic environments have developed the more broad-based conception accepted here.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Typical manifestations of CSR occur through philanthropic programs, volunteer activities, in-kind giving, and community relations. In contrast, the dominant conception of corporate citizenship applies to the ways a company operates; that is, its fundamental business model, and the stakeholder, societal, and nature-related impacts that derive from the way the company does business. Although some definitions of corporate citizenship do focus more narrowly on social good activities of companies, the more business-model-based definition related to overall corporate responsibilities is widely accepted, as the definitions given above indicate.</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Corpor ate Citizenship </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">25 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
In the 1960s, U.S. legal scholar Dow Votaw noted that companies needed to be understood not just as economic actors in society but also as political actors. Votaw focused on specific issues related to a company’s corporate citizenship that retain currency today, particularly in light of the vast size and economic clout of many large multinational corporations. The issues that concerned Votaw included companies’ influence and power, which are derived from a company’s size and control of economic and other resources; questions about the legitimacy of firms in society and how they are to be made accountable to broader societal interests; and how companies could be sanctioned when wrongdoing occurs. Thus, deeply embedded in the notion of corporate citizenship is the idea that companies gain legitimacy through a form of social contract granted by societies typically in the form of incorporation papers. With legitimacy comes a set of rights and also responsibilities. Corporate citizenship highlights the specific arenas in which those responsibilities apply, encompassing relationships with stakeholders and impacts on the natural environment and societies.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
The reach, scope, and size of many large companies have created significant pressures from different groups in society for better corporate citizenship and greater attention to the ethical values that underpin it. These pressures are highlighted by the fact that, by 2002, 51 of the world’s largest economies were said not to be countries but companies. In part, it is this spectacular size and attendant power that have created much of the attention to corporate citizenship, fueled further by concerns about globalization’s impacts; management practices of outsourcing key functions to developing nations to reduce costs; ethical and accounting scandals; and corporate influence on governments, communities, and whole societies.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Corporate leaders began paying significant attention to issues of corporate citizenship during the late 1990s and early 2000s, following waves of antiglobalization protests; critiques of corporate outsourcing practices; fears about climate change and other serious environmental problems said to be at least partially created by businesses; and the rise of anticorporate activism sometimes directed at specific companies and sometimes at policies of powerful global institutions such as the World Trade Organization, the World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund. Advanced communication technologies fueled the ability of activists and other critics to question corporate activities and create increasing demands for responsibility, transparency, and accountability by companies.</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">26 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
On the business side, numerous new activities and organizations designed to highlight good corporate citizenship emerged during the 1990s and early 2000s. At least partially in response to vocal activism about supply chain practices, many multinational corporations developed and implemented internal codes of conduct during the 1990s. Some of these companies also asked their supply chain partners to implement the codes in their operations as well. In addition to internal codes, a number of codes and sets of principles, frequently generated by multisector coalitions that included companies, governmental representatives, activists, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), also emerged. These codes represent what their developers consider to be a baseline or floor of ethical conduct that serves as the foundation of corporate citizenship. Prominent business ethicists Thomas Donaldson and Thomas Dunfee have labeled such foundational values hypernorms. Although still somewhat controversial as to whether they exist, hypernorms identified by Donaldson and Dunfee include basics such as respect for human dignity, basic rights, good citizenship, and, similarly, fundamental values. Such hypernorms serve as a foundation for all human values and also as a basis for good corporate citizenship. They are built on three principles, including the respect for core human values that determine a floor of practice and behavior below which it is ethically problematic, respect for local traditions, and respect for the context in which decisions are made.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
During the 1990s and into the 2000s, there was a great deal of activism against certain corporate practices such as outsourcing, which frequently involved contracting with manufacturers in developing nations whose workers were subjected to abusive conditions, ecological deterioration, and poor labor standards, as well as the impact of globalization. This activism generated a flurry of development of codes of conduct that attempted to codify how such basic principles could be put into practice in companies. As the codes developed, many companies, particularly large multinational firms with brand names to protect, began demanding that their suppliers live up to the standards articulated in the codes.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Many companies developed their own codes of conduct; in addition, a number of codes emerged that were developed by multisector coalitions working from internationally agreed documents or core ethical standards. Among the most prominent, although not without its critics, was the United Nations’ Global Compact’s set of 10 (originally nine) principles, which were drawn from internationally agreed declarations and treaties. The Global Compact, </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Corpor ate Citizenship </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">27 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
which had nearly 2,000 members by 2005, was established in 1999 by UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan to "initiate a global compact of shared values and principles, which will give a human face to the global market." In signing onto the Global Compact, companies agree to uphold 10 fundamental principles on human rights, labor rights, environment, and anticorruption.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
The Global Compact’s 10 principles focus on core or foundational principles and are drawn from major UN declarations and documents that have been signed by most of the countries of the world. Documents from which the principles are drawn include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Labour Organization’s Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, and the United Nations Convention Against Corruption. The two human rights principles require companies to support and respect the protection of internationally proclaimed human rights and make sure that they are not complicit in any human rights abuses. The four labor standards require companies to uphold the freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining, eliminate all forms of forced and compulsory labor, effectively abolish child labor, and eliminate discrimination in employment. The three environmental principles require companies to support a precautionary approach to environmental challenges, undertake initiatives to promote greater environmental responsibility, and encourage the development and diffusion of environmentally friendly technologies. The corruption principle, added in 2004, requires companies to work against all forms of corruption, including bribery and extortion.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
There are other important codes and principles aimed at putting corporate citizenship efforts into operating practices and strategies. These codes include the Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the Global Sullivan Principles of Corporate Social Responsibility, the Marine Stewardship Council’s Principles and Guidelines for Sustainable Fishing, the Natural Step’s Sustainability Principles, the UN’s Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and Other Enterprises with regard to Human Rights, the Equator Principles (for the financial services industry), the Sustainable Forestry Principles, the Caux Principles, the Business Principles for Countering Bribery, the CERES (Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economies) Principles, the Clean Clothes Campaign model code, the Workplace Code of Conduct of the Fair Labor Association, the Keidanren Charter for Good Corporate Behavior and </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">28 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
the Keidanren Environment Charter, the Canadian Business for Social Responsibility Guidelines, the World Federation of the Sporting Goods Industry Model Code, and numerous others. One observer at the International Labour Organization, a division of the United Nations, counted more than 400 such principles and codes including individual company codes. Many, although certainly not all, of the core issues embedded in these codes are similar, despite differences in wording and specific focus.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
These codes and principles evolved, in part, because of societal concerns about corporate practices and impacts. For example, the practice of outsourcing operations including manufacturing and production of many goods and services to low-wage developing nations became very popular among large companies starting in the 1990s and continuing to the present. This practice drew attention to the companies’ corporate citizenship because many of the facilities in the developing nations were exposed in media reports as having sweatshop working conditions, abusing the human rights of workers, having poor safety standards, or employing weak environmental management. The practice of outsourcing continued into the 2000s and expanded to call and support centers, programming, and other technologically sophisticated services, which shifted from the developed nations to the developing nations. Concerns about domestic job loss for communities where the outsourcing company had facilities combined with low wages and poor conditions in some developing nations created a public focus on the implications of this type of practice for different groups of stakeholders.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Other factors fueling attention to corporate citizenship include the array of ethical scandals, accounting misrepresentations, and frauds that were uncovered in the United States in the early 2000s, as well as in Europe and elsewhere. Accompanied by accusations of corruption and undue influence in the political affairs of nations, and participation by companies in abusive regimes in certain countries, these scandals drew attention to corporate citizenship or what some believed to be lack thereof. Chief executive compensation, estimated to be on the order of 450 times that of the average worker in the early 2000s, and a wave of consolidations through mergers and acquisitions that created huge oligopolies and even near monopolies in many industries, further fanned the desire for better corporate citizenship and also fanned the flames of attention to corporate citizenship.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Pressures for ever-increasing short-term financial performance from financial markets beginning in the 1980s and continuing to the present have </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Corpor ate Citizenship </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">29 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
focused many corporate leaders’ attention on short-term share prices. The attention to share price caused some observers and critics to believe that companies were failing to pay sufficient attention to other stakeholders, that is, those affected by and able to affect the company’s activities. Corporate citizenship thus evolved during the 1990s and 2000s in part as a voluntary effort by many large, and therefore highly visible, transnational corporations as well as numerous smaller ones, to demonstrate their goodwill in the face of concerns about their size, short-term decision-making orientation, their power accrued through control of financial and other resources, and not always positive impacts on stakeholders, societies, and the natural environment.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">CRITICISMS OF CORPORATE CITIZENSHIP AND RESPONSES<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Criticism of a company’s corporate citizenship can come from many sources, including activists, the media, local communities affected by company activities, customers, and sometimes nations. Some activists set up websites that attempt to foster action against a company, such as a boycott. Wal-Mart, for example, has faced significant problems in some communities because of the company’s impact on local shopping districts, low wages, and discrimination against women. Some investors are also concerned about corporate responsibility or citizenship and choose their investments at least in part on the basis of how they perceive the company’s corporate citizenship through what is called socially responsible investing. The Social Investment Forum in the United States estimated in 2003 that some $2.16 trillion or more than one of every nine equity investment dollars in the United States was invested in assets that employed at least one of the three main responsible investment strategies—screening investments, shareholder advocacy, and community investment. Screening investments means paying attention to particular negative practices, including poor supply chain management practices such as child labor or abusive working conditions, poor environmental practices, or harmful products such as cigarettes, which some investors wish to avoid. Some investors look for positive practices that they wish to encourage. Returns for investments in screened funds as compared with traditional funds are roughly comparable.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Shareholder advocates focus on changing corporate practices by submitting shareholder resolutions. Shareholder resolutions are aimed at changing </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">30 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
matters of concern to activist investors and are directed to the board of directors through the annual meeting process. Shareholder resolutions can focus on a wide range of issues of concern, including environmental policies and practices, labor standards, wages, harmful products, and excessive executive compensation, to name a few areas of criticism. Some chief executives engage in dialogue with the shareholder activists and promise changes, resulting in the resolutions being withdrawn, while others come to a vote during the annual meeting process. Community investors sometimes put their money into projects that are aimed specifically at helping to improve communities, such as housing developments, retail establishments, and similar projects. They may carry a somewhat lower rate of return than traditional investments, but social investors are willing to make that trade-off when necessary.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Defining corporate citizenship as the contributions of businesses to society through the combination of core business activities, social investment and philanthropy, and participation in the public policy process, the World Economic Forum created a framework for action signed by 40 multinational companies’ CEOs in 2002. This framework for action focuses on three key elements that help flesh out what corporate citizenship means in practice: the companies’ commitment to being global corporate citizens as part of the way that they operate their businesses; the relationships that companies have with key stakeholders, which are fundamental to the company’s success internally and externally; and the need for leadership on issues of corporate citizenship by the CEOs and boards of directors of those companies. This statement also points out the array of terminology used to signify corporate citizenship activities: triple bottom line or sustainable development, ethics, corporate responsibility, and corporate social responsibility. The statement also emphasizes key elements of managing responsibility: leadership that defines what corporate citizenship means to a company, integration into corporate strategies and practices, implementation, and transparency.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Evidence of growing interest on the part of companies in corporate citizenship can be found not only in their joining organizations such as the UN Global Compact, the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), and similar organizations but also in a growing acceptance of the need to manage their responsibilities explicitly. The WBCSD focuses on three pillars of corporate citizenship that have come to be called the triple bottom line—economic growth, ecological balance, and social progress through the lens of sustainable development. For example, many transnational firms with </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Corpor ate Citizenship </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">31 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
long supply chains have been exposed to criticisms by activists that practices in supply chain companies, which may not actually belong to the multinational company, are problematic, with poor labor standards, working conditions, and environmental standards.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Some companies have actively begun to manage their supply chain relationships by asking suppliers to live up to the multinational’s own code of conduct and standards of practice, as well as ensuring that conditions in their own operations are managed responsibly. Such responsibility management approaches are aimed at helping companies protect their reputations for good citizenship by establishing global standards throughout their supply chain. They are supplemented by an emerging institutional framework aimed at assuring that stated and implicit corporate responsibilities are actually met.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">STAKEHOLDERS AND CORPORATE CITIZENSHIP<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
The definition of corporate citizenship as having to do with the impacts of corporate practices and strategies on stakeholders, nature, and the natural environment links corporate citizenship integrally to the relationships that companies develop with their stakeholders. In the classic definition offered by R. Edward Freeman, stakeholders are said to be those who are affected by or who can affect a company. Stakeholders can be classified into two categories— primary and secondary. Primary stakeholders are those groups and individuals without whom the company cannot exist and typically are said to include owners or shareholders, employees, customers, and suppliers, particularly in companies with extended supply chain. Secondary stakeholders are those affected by or can affect the company’s practices and strategies, but who are not essential to its existence. Secondary stakeholders typically include governments, communities where the company has facilities and operations, and activists interested in the company’s activities, among numerous others. Sometimes governments or communities can be considered primary stakeholders, as when a company is in a regulated industry or when its business directly serves a given community. The environment is not a person but because all companies and indeed all of human civilization depend on its resources, it is frequently treated as if it were a stakeholder; hence, environmental management and related issues of ecological sustainability are tightly linked to concepts of corporate citizenship.</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">32 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Each stakeholder group either takes some sort of risk with respect to the company, makes an investment of some sort in it, or is tied through some sort of emotional, reputational, or other means into the company’s performance. Shareholders or owners, for example, invest their money in the company’s shares and rightfully expect a fair return on that investment. Employees invest their knowledge, physical strength and abilities, skills, intellectual resources, and frequently also some of their emotions in the firm, and the firm invests in training and developing employees. Employees are repaid through their salaries and wages. A significant body of research exists that suggests that when employees are treated well by a company through progressive employee practices that are representative of good corporate citizenship, their productivity will be better and the company will benefit financially and in other ways. Customers trust that the products or services that they purchase will serve the purposes for which they are designed and add appropriate value. Good corporate citizenship with respect to customers, therefore, involves the creation of value-adding products and services. Problems with suppliers can result in numerous issues for companies relating to product quality, delivery, and customer service, not to mention the fact that if the supplier itself uses problematic practices, such as sweatshops or poor labor standards, the company purchasing its products will suffer from a degraded reputation. Hence, it is important for companies to manage their relationships with suppliers and distributors well, particularly because many external observers fail to differentiate between the corporate citizenship of the main company and its supply and distribution chain.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Communities are important to companies because they create local infrastructure, such as sewers, communications connections, roadways, building permits, and the like that companies need. Many companies that view themselves as good corporate citizens have extensive corporate community relations programs, including philanthropic programs, volunteer initiatives, and community-based events intended to enhance their local reputation as a neighbor of choice and sustain what is called their license to operate. Governments are important stakeholders, too, and most large companies have developed significant public affairs functions to deal with governmental relations. They also participate in the political processes of countries where they are located to the extent permissible locally, including contributing to campaigns and working through lobbyists to influence legislation.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Environmental management and sustainability have become important elements of good corporate citizenship as worries about the long-term sustainability of human civilization in nature have become more common. Many large </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Corpor ate Citizenship </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">33 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
companies have implemented environmental management programs in which they attempt to monitor and control the ways in which environmental resources are used so that they are not wasted through programs that encompass resource reduction, reuse, and recycling. A few progressive firms have begun to focus on issues of long-term ecological sustainability as well.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">RESPONSIBILITY MANAGEMENT AND ASSURANCE<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Most large corporations today have developed specific functions to deal with these different stakeholder groups in what are called boundary-spanning functions. Because the quality of the relationship between a company and its stakeholders is an important manifestation of the company’s corporate citizenship, these boundary-spanning functions, which include position titles such as employee relations, community relations, public affairs, shareholder relations, supplier relations, and customer relations, are increasingly important.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
In most large companies today there is still no one particular job title or function in which all the corporate citizenship activities reside, though some corporate community relations officers have assumed a great many of these responsibilities. A few companies have appointed individuals to positions with titles such as corporate social responsibility officer, vice president of corporate responsibility, or director of corporate citizenship. These jobs, however, are still far from common as of 2005.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
In response to criticisms about their negative impacts on society, stakeholders, and nature, and questions about the credibility of their corporate citizenship, many large companies have developed corporate citizenship statements and strategies; some have even appointed managers to positions with titles such as corporate citizenship, corporate social responsibility, or corporate responsibility officer. By the early 2000s, many large corporations voluntarily began to issue social, ecological, or so-called triple-bottom-line reports, which encompass all three elements of corporate citizenship, aimed at economic, social, and ecological impacts.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Responsibility Management<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Responsibility management and reporting in the early 2000s consisted of voluntary efforts on the part of companies to be more transparent about some of their practices and impacts. Because companies were able to report how, when, and what they wanted to, however, many critics still found problems </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">34 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
with their corporate citizenship. In response, what can be called a responsibility assurance system, consisting of principles and codes of conduct, credible monitoring, verification, and certification systems to ensure that those principles were being met, and consistent reporting mechanisms began to evolve in the early 2000s.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
A given company’s corporate citizenship is guided by the company’s vision and underpinned by its values. Responsibility management approaches begin with vision and values and are reinforced by stakeholder engagement, which helps companies to determine the concerns and interests of both internal and external stakeholders and make appropriate changes. Unlike CSR, which focuses on discretionary activities, corporate citizenship in its broadest sense represents a more integrated approach to the broad responsibilities of companies that is increasingly being accepted by leaders of global enterprises. When a company adopts a responsibility management approach as part of its corporate citizenship agenda, it also focuses on integrating the vision and values into the operating practices and strategies of the firm, typically by focusing on human resource practices and the array of management systems, corporate culture, and strategic decisions that constitute the firm. Another important aspect of responsibility management, which can be compared in its major elements to quality management, is developing an appropriate measurement and feedback system so that improvements can be made as necessary. A final element is that of transparency, as many companies managing corporate citizenship explicitly publish some sort of report that focuses on their social, ecological, and economic performance. Such reports have come to be called triple-bottom-line reports.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Responsibility Assurance<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Skeptical stakeholders need reassurance that companies actually manage their stakeholder, societal, and ecological responsibilities well and were unsatisfied with voluntary internal responsibility management approaches, particularly since such approaches were still mostly in use by large branded companies concerned about their reputation, leaving most business-to-business companies and small and medium-sized enterprises to their own devices. Such critics need reassurance that stated standards are actually being met and that statements about corporate citizenship made by companies are accurate. As a result, in addition to internal and voluntary responsibility management approaches, during the early 2000s some large multinational companies began </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Corpor ate Citizenship </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">35 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
participating in an emerging and still voluntary responsibility assurance system. Responsibility assurance attempted to provide some external credibility to what companies were doing internally to manage their corporate citizenship. Responsibility assurance involves three major elements: principles and foundational values; credible monitoring, verification, and certification systems that help ensure that a company is living up to its stated values; and globally accepted standards for transparently reporting on corporate citizenship and responsibility activities.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Principles and Foundation Values<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Principles and foundation values can be found in documents such as the UN Global Compact, OECD Guidelines for Multinational Corporations, and similar codes of conduct as discussed above. They provide guidance to companies about a floor of practice below which it is morally problematic to go and typically rest on core ethical principles or, as noted above, internationally agreed documents and treaties.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Credible Monitoring, Certification, and Verification Approaches<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
The second aspect of responsibility assurance encompasses credible monitoring, certification, and verification approaches. Because there is a great deal of skepticism about companies’ actual corporate citizenship practice, many critics are unwilling to believe companies when they state that they are ensuring that their codes of conduct are actually being implemented. This skepticism increases in long global supply chains, where companies outsource manufacturing, assembly, and related low-skill work to facilities in developing nations; the outsourced work is granted to suppliers who are not actually owned by the customer or sourcing company. Although the supplier facilities are not actually part of the sourcing company, some multinationals’ reputations have nonetheless been tainted when activists have uncovered problems in the suppliers’ operations related to human and labor rights, environment, safety, working conditions, abuses that involve poor pay even by local standards or failure to pay overtime, and related problems. Child labor is another serious concern for some activists. It turned out that the media, activists, and ultimately the general public did not make a distinction between the supplying company manufacturing in developing nations and the customer company that was purchasing those goods—both were blamed for the use of child labor, but the multinationals were the nearer and more familiar target, so they bore the brunt of the </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">36 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
blame. Even when the multinationals implemented their codes of conduct and asked their suppliers to live up to those codes, problems persisted.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
As a result, some footwear, clothing, toy, and sports equipment multinationals and some large retailers, who were among the first companies targeted by activists for poor sourcing practices, not only asked their suppliers to implement a code of conduct but began hiring external verifiers to go into those companies and ensure that standards were actually being met. These verifiers are mostly independent agents; they include both NGOs and sometimes accounting firms attempting to develop an expertise in social, labor, and ecological monitoring. The verifiers perform three main functions in supplying companies, wherever they are found: verification that the standards of the sourcing firm are being met; monitoring of working conditions, pay, labor standards, and health, safety, and environmental standards; and certification to the external world that conditions are what the company says they are. Major companies such as Nike, Reebok, Levi Strauss, The Gap, Disney, and Mattel, and numerous others who have been spotlighted in the past, now employ external verifiers in addition to having their own codes of conduct and internal management systems.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Among the many organizations involved in the verification or social audit process are the Fair Labor Association; SAI International, which offers a set of standards called SA 8000; and the British firm AccountAbility, which offers a set of standards called AA 1000. Others include the Clean Clothes Campaign, the Worldwide Responsible Apparel Production program, the Ethical Trading Initiative, Verité, the Fairwear Foundation of the Netherlands, and the Worker Rights Consortium. Many of these independent monitoring and verification organizations are NGOs, while some social auditors are for-profit enterprises. In addition, some represent women’s rights groups, some are focused on labor and human rights, and others are backed by religious groups. Some are local in scope and use local parties to actually conduct the monitoring, while the larger ones are international in scope. Concerns about this type of monitoring or responsibility audit, according to the U.S. association Business for Social Responsibility (BSR), range from issues about the effectiveness of monitors in actually uncovering abuses; lack of resolution of issues uncovered in reports by corporate headquarters; and opinions that other means of reducing poverty, corruption, and related systemic problems will be more effective than verification processes. BSR also suggests several positive reasons why companies wish to employ social auditors and verifiers, including cost reduction by using </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Corpor ate Citizenship </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">37 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
local monitors rather than in-house monitors especially when facilities are globally distributed, benefits to corporate reputation, better compliance both with the code and legal requirements, enhanced productivity and quality brought about by better working conditions, and greater transparency and related credibility with the public.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Globally Accepted Reporting Standards<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
The third important element of responsibility assurance is having globally accepted reporting standards that ensure that real transparency exists about corporate practices and impacts. Here, the analogy needs to be made to financial auditing and reporting. The auditing and accounting industry, at least within each nation, has long established standard practices, formats, and criteria for reporting corporate financial performance. Such standardization is important so that investors can compare one company’s performance against others in the same industry or across different industries. Currently, the same cannot be said for corporate reporting about social and ecological matters, yet there are increasing demands on companies for greater transparency about their practices and impacts.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Although many companies issue triple- or multiple-bottom-line reports that focus not only on economic and financial matters but also on social and environmental ones, there is still no fully accepted reporting procedure that details what, how, and when different aspects of performance are to be reported. As a result, comparing the social or ecological performance of one company with that of others even within the same industry can be problematic. Restoring public trust in corporate citizenship ultimately will require standardization of social reports and even potentially some legal requirements that all companies issue such reports.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
There are a number of initiatives aimed at developing globally accepted reporting standards that ensure social and ecological transparency, including a major initiative by the European Union to standardize CSR reporting. Indeed, the ISO organization, which sets quality and environmental standards, began to develop a set of corporate responsibility standards in 2004, which will be voluntary for companies once completed. A company called One Report helps multinationals and other companies gather and report on issues related to sustainability, which include both social and ecological elements, in a standardized format. Perhaps the most prominent of the initiatives around standardized triple-bottom-line reporting, sometimes called sustainability, reporting is that of the Global Reporting Initiative or GRI.</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">38 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
The GRI began in 1997 as an initiative of the CERES and became independent in 2002. Its mission is to develop globally standardized guidelines for sustainability reporting. Formed by a multistakeholder coalition, the GRI regularly gets input from businesses, accounting firms, and investment, environmental, research, human rights, and labor organizations to ensure that its standards are comprehensive, correct, and appropriate to the situation of different businesses. Linked cooperatively with the UN Global Compact, the GRI has developed specific reporting guidelines, principles for determining what to report and how, and content indicators that guide organizations in developing their own reports. In addition, because industries differ dramatically in the characteristics of what needs to be reported, the GRI also has begun developing industry-specific standards.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
The GRI attempts to help companies integrate a number of complex attributes related to their corporate citizenship. These include their code of conduct, international conventions and performance standards, management systems standards, accounting for intangibles, assurance standards, and specific standards related to the company’s industry. Sometimes criticized for its complexity, the GRI represents the most recognized approach to date of standardized triple-bottom-line or sustainability reporting.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">CRITICISMS OF CORPORATE CITIZENSHIP<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Some observers believe that corporate citizenship merely represents an effort on the part of companies to create a positive public image rather than substantive change within the corporation. Particularly when corporate citizenship is treated as discretionary or voluntary activities designed to improve aspects of society, critics believe that it does not go deep enough. Others point out that while the United Nations estimates that there are approximately 70,000 multinational corporations in the world with hundreds of thousands of subsidiaries, only a few highly visible, mostly brand-name companies are actively engaged in explicitly forwarding themselves as good corporate citizens. For example, as of 2005, about 2,000 companies had joined the UN Global Compact, while about 350, many of which had joined the Global Compact, had completed triple-bottom-line audits following the procedures of the GRI.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Another criticism of the concept of corporate citizenship focuses on the fact that citizenship is an individual responsibility involving a corresponding set of rights that relate to membership in a political entity, typically a nation-state, that </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Corpor ate Citizenship </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">39 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
involve civil, social, and political rights and responsibilities, while companies are not people. Companies, however, do bear responsibilities for their societal and ecological impacts, because they command significantly more resources than do most individuals, because they can influence the public policy process in many nations, and because when they participate in civil society or the political process, they carry more weight than do most individual citizens.</div>
<br />
<div align="RIGHT">
—Sandra Waddock</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Further Readings<br />
<dir>
</dir></span><dir></dir></span><dir><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Andriof, J., & McIntosh, M. (Eds.). (2001). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Perspectives on corporate citizenship. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Sheffield, UK: Greenleaf.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Donaldson, T., & Dunfee, T. W. (1999). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Ties that bind: A social contracts approach to business ethics. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Boston: Harvard Business School Press.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Journal of Corporate Citizenship. </div>
</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Various articles, published 2001 to present. Sheffield, UK: Greenleaf.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Marsden, C. (2000, Spring). The new corporate citizenship of big business: Part of the solution to sustainability? </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Business and Society Review, 105</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(1), 9–26.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Matten, D., & Crane, A. (2004). Corporate citizenship: Towards an extended theoretical conceptualization. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Academy of Management Review, 29, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">166–179.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Matten, D., Crane, A., & Chapple, W. (2003, June). Behind the mask: Revealing the true face of corporate citizenship. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Journal of Business Ethics, 45</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(1/2), 109–121.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
McIntosh, M., Leipziger, D., Jones, K., & Coleman, G. (1998). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Corporate citizenship: Successful strategies for responsible companies. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">London: Financial Times/Pitman.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Waddock, S. (2004, March). Companies, academics, and the progress of corporate citizenship. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Business and Society Review, 109, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">5–42.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Waddock, S. (2006). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Leading corporate citizens: Vision, values, value added </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Zadek, S. (2001). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">The civil corporation: The new economy of corporate citizenship. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">London: Earthscan.</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">40 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span></dir><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-size: large;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><div align="CENTER">
SUSTAINABILITY</div>
</span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue LightCond,HelveticaNeue LightCond;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue LightCond,HelveticaNeue LightCond;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue LightCond,HelveticaNeue LightCond;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue LightCond,HelveticaNeue LightCond;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
S</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">ustainability </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">is an evolving concept that expresses holistic thinking integrating society, economy, and ecology. This concept has been advanced to guide actions within present society to ensure continued existence and prosperity into the foreseeable future. Therefore, </span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">sustainability </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">can be defined as an integrated understanding of the interconnectedness of human activity with all related man-made and naturally occurring systems. The goal of sustainability is often conflated with the approach needed to attain the goal— </span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">sustainable development. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">Understanding these two terms is an essential first step for addressing a set of global challenges embodied by sustainability. To that end, the Brundtland Commission, created through the United Nations, published a report in 1987 in which </span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">sustainable development </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">is defined as seeking to meet the needs and aspirations of present society without compromising the ability to meet those of future generations.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Because of profound changes to our shared ecological systems, the question of sustainability is being considered around the world. From advancing ozone depletion, which leads to progressively higher levels of life-damaging radiation, to accelerating greenhouse gas emissions, which contribute to complex climate change, to habitat destruction, which results in decreased biodiversity, shared ecosystem resources are being depleted or damaged. Among the consequence of ecosystem damage and loss are that it can threaten and create social unrest in the future, while at the same time drive numerous species toward extinction. Abject poverty that attends the growing gaps between the rich and the poor is a proven driver of environmental degradation and fuels resource, trade, and policy disputes. This type of economic unrest has provided a source of motivation to address sustainability issues not only in organizations such as the United Nations but also at the World Bank and the World Trade Organization.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
As our society wrestles with the meaning and actions implied by sustainability, it is helpful to consider that more than 400 years ago the Haudenosaunee (also known as the Iroquois) had their "Great Law," which, in part, requires that leaders consider the impact of their decisions on the seventh generation </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Sustainability </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">41 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
following that decision. There are other such examples of statements regarding sustainability from the past that very clearly define our collective responsibility to protect and plan for the future. Understanding the recurrence of this theme in human society helps us to understand the centrality of sustainability. It is also instructive to note that thinking about sustainability is not the same as achieving a sustainable outcome. Many civilizations have risen only to prove unsustainable, the Haudenosaunee being among them. What is very different today is the accumulating metrics and resulting data that confirm the impact of human activity on global ecosystem services, such as water cycles, carbon cycles, and resource renewal cycles to name a few. Climate scientists are in general agreement that global warming is real, and it is the product of human activity. The main questions now are as follows: How bad will the consequences be? How fast will they manifest? What can be done to mitigate some of the damage already done?</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Sustainability explores how we collectively and individually move into the future while learning to understand how global ecosystem services underpin the social and economic activity on the planet. Business organizations are human society’s most efficient resource concentrators, transformers, and distributors; thus, they create what might be called a "corporate ecology" and, therefore, business-oriented solutions central to any working and attainable definition of sustainability.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
A few business organizations have viewed increased emphasis on sustainability as an opportunity. If environmental and social costs are included as additional performance metrics, then those firms that comply early and set new standards may be able to create a basis for competitive advantage. For instance, when the California Environmental Protection Agency found that two-stroke engines (the type often used in lawn mowers and gas-powered gardening equipment) were causing a large amount of air pollution, it began to demand more stringent emissions standards for these machines. At first, these new standards were opposed by industry, but a few innovators not only were able to meet the new standards but exceeded them and used 33% less fuel with their more efficient motors. In this case, a sustainability effort, once embraced by these companies, provided the compliant companies with a competitive advantage and achieved a social and environmental objective simultaneously. Sustainability, when pursued by businesses with creativity and purpose, can achieve financial, social, and environmental objectives in an integrated and positively reinforcing manner.</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">42 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
The concept of sustainability is not without its detractors. Some notable scholars, such as Julian Simon, feel that the combined mental power of more people will solve whatever environmental or social problems further human activity produces. The Cato Institute in 2002 concluded that sustainable development is a dubious solution in search of a problem or that it is simply a restatement of a commonsense position of taking care of one’s own productive resources that is already well addressed by the current free market policy. It has also been argued that the cost of taking action to comply with sustainability initiatives such as the Kyoto Treaty on Climate Change would cost the U.S. economy a disproportionate amount. These arguments were central to the Bush administration’s refusal to become a signatory nation to that agreement on "greenhouse gas" reduction. Some climate scientists and ecologists argue that greenhouse gas damage to ecosystems services may be irreversible and this damage has real costs now that will grow in the future. A concept as complex and far-reaching as sustainability will always present business and society with very conflicted and ambiguous trade-offs.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Because business organizations are uniquely transformative institutions in modern society, how business approaches the concept of sustainability is of primary importance. This central role of business in modern society is also discussed in such topics as corporate social responsibility, corporate citizenship, and corporate ecology. A number of management efficiency approaches have been suggested for business organizations that could make important contributions to our societal goal of sustainability. Some of these include ISO14000, triple-bottom-line accounting, the balanced scorecard approach to strategic management, natural capitalism, the natural step, industrial ecology, Zero Emissions Research Initiative (ZERI), ecological footprinting, and eco-effectiveness (cradle-to-cradle model). In the following sections, these approaches will be discussed briefly.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">ISO14000<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
ISO stands for the International Standards Organization. It is a nongovernmental organization that has grown out of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. As the World Trade Organization pursues agreements on global trade, quality standards have become increasingly important. One of the outcomes of the 1992 Rio Summit on the Environment was the creation of ISO14000 to create a comprehensive set of standards designed to address the most pressing </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Sustainability </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">43 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
environmental issues for organizations in a global market. As it currently stands, these standards are voluntary for organizations to abide by. However, the ISO14000 is building on up-to-date environmental health and safety standards. These are important standards and make significant contributions to our understanding of sustainability. However, the ISO does not make specific mention of sustainability and states as its primary focus the application of best practices that are geared toward helping organizations come into compliance with globally accepted standards on environmental health and safety. Depending on the application, the ISO approach to standardized reporting and efficiency measures can lead a company to improvements or to follow an industry to the lowest common denominator of acceptable practice.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">TRIPLE-BOTTOM-LINE ACCOUNTING<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
This term and approach originated with the publication of John Elkington’s 1998 book </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">Cannibals with Forks: Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">In it, Elkington argues that accounting practice should be expanded to include environmental and social costs as well as financial costs. Some scholars argue that corporate social responsibility, or corporate social performance, must measure the social, environmental, and economic performance of the corporation for a firm to be consistent in its approach to these commitments to good practice. There are obvious problems associated with assessing the costs to society for various corporate actions. According to Elkington, the price of a product should include the cost of the ecological services consumed in the production of the product and embodied in the use and disposal of the product. Great strides in ecological economics and research in social capital have helped create metrics to fill in these gaps. The triple-bottom-line approach would have a substantial impact on how organizations operate and may advance our understanding of sustainability. But there are many scholars and practitioners who oppose this type of approach, arguing that it confuses the division of labor and would make firms inefficient and uncompetitive.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">BALANCED SCORECARD<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
This systematic approach to enterprise management was developed in the early 1990s, by Robert Kaplan and David Norton, as a way to remove some of </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">44 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
the vagueness out of strategic management. This approach was not developed specifically as a tool to achieve sustainability, but it has promise as such. Like the triple bottom line, the balanced scorecard approach requires that management look beyond financial measurement; it incorporates a more holistic systems perspective into organizational management. This system uses what has been referred to as a double-loop feedback: One loop is business process focused, and one loop is strategic outcome focused. Both loops are intended to use measurements to provide managers with data on which decision making is based. The application for sustainability comes from the reliance on internal and external data collection and an inherent acceptance of a systems approach.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">NATURAL CAPITALISM<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
In 1999, Paul Hawkins, Amory Lovins, and L. Hunter Lovins published a book proposing the redesign of industry based on biological models. They argue that the living systems of the earth are in decline and that the next industrial revolution will be driven by corporations. Natural capitalism is built around the idea that business opportunities become more abundant as entrepreneurs recognize environmental resource limitations. Those that can do more with less will prosper. The advocates of natural capitalism propose four interlinked principles to unlock and ultimately restore natural capital: (1) radically increase resource productivity; (2) adopt closed-loop systems and zero waste in industry; (3) sell services in place of selling products; and (4) recognize that natural capital is the source of future prosperity, thus that businesses will be incentivized to invest in its maintenance. This approach is not only an explicit plan for the concept of sustainability but also a vision of what sustainable business practice might look like.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">THE NATURAL STEP<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
This approach is the outcome of a series of studies initiated by Karl-Henrik Rob, who established principles for sustainable society based on thermodynamics and natural cycles. Since 1989, the Natural Step Foundation has been refining and promoting its four-phase program. These phases are (1) aligning key decision makers and stakeholders around a common understanding of what it takes to be a sustainable society, (2) creating baseline data that detail </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Sustainability </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">45 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
the resources necessary for an organization to be sustainable, (3) creating a vision-driven strategic plan based on the data gathered through the study of the organizational system, and (4) recognizing that success depends on step-by-step implementation and continued support. While this approach is comprehensive and holistic, an organization’s implementation of this approach seems dependent on the Natural Step Foundation and may be self-limiting because of restrictive access. Here again, as in natural capitalism, the emphasis and essence of the approach to sustainability is on systems thinking, confronting natural resource and cycles dependence, and creating strategies to support the health and continuation of these processes.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
The idea of industrial ecology, which has grown rapidly over the past decade, originated in a 1989 publication by Robert Frosch, and a book by this title was published by Graedel and Allenby in 1994. Very simply, industrial ecology is the idea that an industrial system should function like an ecosystem. There is no waste product in nature; the end of one process is the beginning of another. Some scholars have defined industrial ecology as the science of sustainability. Yet others would argue that this overreliance on science is the weakness of industrial ecology. It has been said that the answer to the question of sustainability will not be engineered; society must come to an understanding of the interdependence of natural systems and their limitations. These writers advocate caution regarding industrial ecology and suggest that technological fixes help human populations extend their overconsumption of resources, whether they are renewable or fixed in quantity. However, all would agree that industrial ecology will be at least part of the solution, because it provides the engineering solutions that can teach us to do much more with less consumption and helps eliminate waste and pollution.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">ZERO EMISSIONS RESEARCH INITIATIVE (ZERI)<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
ZERI is a concept and a network started by Pauli and deSouza at the United Nations University in Japan. The ZERI network has more than 50 projects worldwide that are applying the ZERI sustainability ideas regarding biodiversity, waste elimination, creativity, and efficient design. ZERI is similar to the </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">46 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Natural Step in that it employs systems thinking to address business, production, and consumption problems. ZERI seeks to create a global network of participants to create alternative organizations that produce goods and services in ways that alleviate poverty and reduce environmental degradation. ZERI is another holistic, systems-based approach to sustainability—one that seeks to model human organizations based on our understanding of naturally occurring systems.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Ecological Footprint is a tool created in 1993 by Mathis Wackernagel and William Rees to help quantify human demand on natural systems relative to the planet’s ability to meet those demands. By showing that these demands are consistently in excess of the planet’s ability to sustainably provide for these demands, the Global Footprint Network seeks to get business, government, and communities to adopt more sustainable behaviors. Unlike most of the other approaches presented here, the footprint concept is a tool that helps individuals and organizations get a sense of what their actions cost in terms of ecological services. This is an important place to start when considering the meaning and application of sustainability. Our current global ecological footprint overshoots ecosystem capacity by almost 20%, which can be absorbed for a time but not without damage and not indefinitely. Tools such as ecological foot printing are important for people to map our current trajectory and to be able to measure change when action is taken.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">ECO-EFFECTIVENESS (CRADLE-TO-CRADLE MODEL)<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
This is a management consulting and sustainability model that is similar to the approach of natural capitalism. It was developed by Michael Braungart and William McDonough in 1995. The idea of eco-effectiveness is not simply doing more with less but designing products and services in ways that are systemically appropriate. Such products and services are designed to produce no waste and to support rather than disrupt natural systems. By studying the industry as a natural system, this concept seeks to design business processes that mimic metabolic systems both biological and mechanical. Like natural capitalism, this approach envisions the next industrial revolution as one where the end of a product use cycle is the beginning of the next nutrient </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Sustainability </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">47 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
cycle—where waste equals food and ecological intelligence drives profitability and competitive advantage.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
As this brief survey of approaches for addressing sustainability illustrates, many scholars and practitioners have expressed urgency and insight about the global need for sustainability. A successful approach to sustainability will not be engineered. Simply building better, more efficient products will not on its own yield a sustainable future. Along with the efficient use of resources, sustainability requires some fundamental changes in how organizations work on all levels, from the individual action to international coordination. These are not insignificant changes. This fact alone captures the profound difficulty in even defining sustainability—sustainability will have different meanings depending on the level of analysis; ultimately they must all contain the understanding that a sustainable world cannot support irresponsible and inequitable resource use.</div>
<br />
<div align="RIGHT">
—David H. Saiia</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Further Readings<br />
<dir>
</dir></span><dir></dir></span><dir><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Cyphert, D., & Saiia, D. (2004). In search of the corporate citizen: The emerging discourse of corporate ecology. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Southern Communication Journal, 69</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(3), 241–256</span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">.</span></span></i></div>
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Doppelt, B. (2003). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Leading change toward sustainability: A change-management guide of business, government and civil society. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Sheffield, UK: Greenleaf.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Elkington, J. (1998).</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Cannibals with forks: The triple bottom line of 21st century business. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Gabriola Island, British Columbia, Canada: New Society.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Frederick, W. C. (1998). Creatures, corporations, communities, chaos, complexity. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Business & Society, 37</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(4), 358–390.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Hart, S. (2005). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Capitalism at the crossroads: The unlimited business opportunities in solving the world’s most difficult problems. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Upper Saddle River, NJ: Wharton School Press.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Hawkins, P., Lovins, A., & Lovins, L. H. (1999). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Natural capitalism: Creating the next Industrial Revolution. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">New York: Little, Brown.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Simon, J. (1996). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">The ultimate resource 2. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">48 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span></dir><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-size: large;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><div align="CENTER">
CORPORATE ACCOUNTABILITY</div>
</span><span></span><br />
<span><div align="JUSTIFY">
C</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">orporate accountability is a foundation of corporate social responsibility. Corporate social responsibilities, at the most general level, include economic duties, legal and regulatory compliance, responsiveness to ethical norms, and discretionary social welfare contributions. In addition, one of the most basic of all corporate social responsibilities is corporate accountability. It is defined as the continuous, systematic, and public communication of information and reasons designed to justify an organization’s decisions, actions, and outputs to various stakeholders. According to this definition, corporate accountability is primarily a form of ethical communication directed toward those parties who are affected by corporate activities and effects.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Corporate accountability represents a corporation’s social responsibility to explain its actions (past, present, and future) in an accessible, reasonable, and meaningful way to the society in which it operates. In a democratic society dependent on informed political discourse and deliberations, corporate accountability is a necessary foundation for the system of free enterprise. The appropriate level of corporate accountability underpins the legitimacy of corporate autonomy and decision making in a system of democratic capitalism. In such a system, business enterprises enjoy a high degree of economic freedom of choice and are expected to engage in activities that promote the interests of the business. This economic freedom, however, is contingent on the existence of strong accountability mechanisms.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
There are various traditional institutional mechanisms, both external and internal to the corporation, designed to enhance and strengthen accountability to stakeholders. These well-known mechanisms include the annual report to shareholders, corporate governance, government regulations, corporate codes and credos, and various forms of corporate communications.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">THE ANNUAL REPORT TO SHAREHOLDERS<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
The single most important component of corporate accountability is the annual report to shareholders. It includes three important financial statements: the balance sheet, the income statement, and the statement of cash flows.</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Corpor ate Accountability </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">49 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
The balance sheet provides a detailed list of corporate resources (assets) and claims to those resources (liabilities and equity). It can be compared with a photograph that summarizes the financial condition of a business entity at a </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">fixed point in time. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">The income statement provides detailed information about revenues, expenses, gains, and losses. It is like a movie in that it explains what happened </span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">over a period of time. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">The statement of cash flows provides information about the sources and uses of cash. It consists of three categories: operating, investing, and financing. The financial statements gain credibility because they are audited by certified public accountants. According to the Financial Accounting Standards Board, the three main objectives of financial accounting are to provide information that is useful to those making investment and credit decisions; helpful to present and potential investors and creditors in assessing the amounts, timing, and uncertainty of future cash flows; and about economic resources, the claims to those resources, and the changes in them.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">CORPORATE GOVERNANCE<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Corporate governance is essential to corporate accountability and without which no corporation can exist. State laws demand that corporations are to be managed and directed by a board of directors. This board acts as a surrogate for the shareholders of the corporation and its primary role is to oversee management’s performance in terms of increasing profits and meeting social responsibilities. As such, corporate governance is a fundamental component to corporate accountability as defined above because it provides a strong institutional forum for communication between managers and shareholders’ representatives.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">CORPORATE REGULATIONS<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
In 2002, the U.S. Congress overwhelmingly passed one of the most significant pieces of securities legislation in U.S. history, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. One of the main purposes of passing the Sarbanes-Oxley legislation was to reestablish the credibility of the financial markets by strengthening corporate accountability. This purpose is in line with the goals of previous federal and state legislation in the United States and across the world.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Sarbanes-Oxley contains several important features relevant to corporate accountability. It established the Public Company Accounting Oversight </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">50 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Board to oversee the accounting profession, thus radically limiting the profession’s traditional autonomy. It requires chief executive officers and chief financial officers to certify all financial statements and assigns criminal responsibility to those executives who knowingly make a false certification while demanding enhanced corporate disclosures concerning off-balance-sheet financing. Sarbanes-Oxley contains several provisions to enhance auditor independence. It also requires corporate boards to establish independent audit boards.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">CORPORATE CREDOS AND CODES OF CONDUCT<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Credos and codes can potentially serve an important role in strengthening corporate accountability. By carefully defining its own ethical aspirations, a corporation can helpfully communicate the criteria by which it wants to be held and judged. While critics are quick to note the self-serving nature of many corporate credos and ethical codes, these kinds of documents often provide both outsiders and insiders specific and clear statements to use in evaluating the credibility of corporate management. Johnson & Johnson’s corporate credo, for example, establishes customers as the primary stakeholder of the corporation. This credo is often cited as an exemplar.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">INCREASING DEMAND FOR CORPORATE ACCOUNTABILITY<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
In recent years, the demand for corporate accountability has increased dramatically. This demand has been spurred by the sheer growth of corporate power and by corporate environmental disasters such as the </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">Exxon Valdez </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">oil spill of 1989 and the Union Carbide and the Bhopal, India, tragedy. Corporate ethics and audit failures such as those at Enron, WorldCom, and many other U.S. and global corporations have also contributed to the increased demand for more and better accountability. Globalization, the Internet, the greenhouse effect, the increased interconnection of the world economy, and the rising power of institutional investors have also contributed to this change. Finally, changes in ethical values, especially an expanded conception of corporate social responsibility, have altered expectations surrounding the need for a broadened conception of corporate accountability.</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Corpor ate Accountability </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">51 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">LIMITATIONS OF THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTSAS AN ACCOUNTABILITY MECHANISM<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
At the same time that the demand for accountability has increased, the usefulness of traditional financial statements is being questioned. While financial statements remain as an important source of reliable and relevant information about corporate activities, they have come under intense scrutiny in recent years. There are several limitations associated with the traditional financial statements.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
First, many items are omitted from the balance sheet. These include intangible assets, the value of human resources, and many liabilities such as pension and health care obligations. Second, investors and other interested parties question the use of historical cost as the predominant method of valuing assets. Third, there is a lack of forward-looking information in the annual report such as management’s forecast of earnings per share. Fourth, the traditional annual report focuses exclusively on the financial performance of corporations and excludes information about environmental and social performance. Finally, annual reports, especially income statements, are subject to questionable accounting manipulations such as earnings management, a process whereby managers alter the timing of revenues and expenses to change investors’ perceptions.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
There is now convincing statistical evidence that earnings management is a frequent management technique used to make a company look better than it otherwise would have. These manipulations occur despite the requirement that all financial statements are audited by certified public accountants. Each of these limitations diminishes the usefulness of the financial statements as an accountability mechanism.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Corporate governance has also come under intense scrutiny in recent years. This criticism of corporate governance reached a climax in the wake of ethics failures, including earnings management, at Enron and Andersen.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">THE BROADENING SCOPE OF CORPORATE ACCOUNTABILITY<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
In response to the increasing demand for corporate accountability and the limited ability of traditional solutions to the meet this need, the scope of corporate accountability has broadened considerably in at least four distinct ways.</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">52 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Backward-Looking Information VersusForward-Looking Information<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
At the heart of the traditional accounting model was the historical cost principle, which states that the original cost of an asset is the most reliable valuation basis. It has long been argued that the best way to measure assets, liabilities, equities, revenues, and expenses is through the use of historical cost. The primary justification for this has been reliability. Simply put, historical cost can be documented and verified by auditors with a high degree of confidence and certainty.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Although historical cost accounting scores high in terms of reliability, it scores much lower in terms of relevance. Investors and creditors trying to predict future performance are more interested in forward-looking information such as managers’ forecast of future earnings per share than backward-looking information (such as last year’s earning per share).</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
In the United States, the Securities and Exchange Commission has taken a major step forward in this area by requiring publicly traded companies to publish a management discussion and analysis section in their annual reports. These reports, as has been documented, contain valuable information not only about past decisions but also about future events and trends. In short, corporations are being asked by regulators and other stakeholders not only to reasonably justify </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">past </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">actions, but they must now also disclose and explain anticipated </span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">future </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">actions.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Hard Versus Soft Data<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
The second change in broadening the scope of corporate accountability is related to the first. There is an ever-increasing flow of financial data carefully audited by outside accountants. This is the hard data. But, at the same time, there is an increasing demand for soft data; that is, information that cannot necessarily be quantified in a precise and exact way but nonetheless is important for decision making. Soft data include descriptions of new products, emerging markets, anticipated layoffs, planned capital expenditures, joint ventures, research and development projects, advertising campaigns, and many other items.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Consider the recent controversy over the disclosure of stock options as just one important example. Many companies argued with some justification that there is simply no known and noncontroversial way to value these options in a reasonable manner. These companies argued that assigning a dollar value </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Corpor ate Accountability </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">53 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
to stock options would provide misleading and unreliable information to shareholders and creditors. Despite these arguments, however, the demand for additional disclosure concerning stock options is unabated.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Although at one time it was possible for companies to legitimately meet the obligation of corporate accountability by publishing a set of numbers with almost no description accompanying the financial statements, today this is no longer the case. Justification now requires accurate verbal disclosures and descriptions as well.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">The Bottom Line Versus Multiple Bottom Lines<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Third, can corporate performance be measured with a single number? Is it conceivable that all of a corporation’s thousands of decisions, actions, and outcomes can be summarized and evaluated through net income? Although some companies and many short-term investors continue to act as if the answer to both these questions is yes, other companies have now learned through experience that even if it was once true, it is certainly no longer the case.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Perhaps the most important of the changes that we have documented so far is the increasing recognition that corporate accountability now requires managers to justify not only purely financial outcomes but also environmental and social outcomes. Connected to this change, the list of legitimate stakeholders has also expanded to include employees, customers, local and global communities, and others. This means there is no longer such a thing as the bottom line. Today, there are multiple bottom lines. In a sense, there are as many bottom lines as there are stakeholders.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
While just a few years ago the phrase multiple bottom line was more metaphor than reality, today it is more reality than metaphor. The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) was established in 1997 as a joint venture between the Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economies and the United Nations Environment Program. In June 2000, GRI published a set of guidelines to help companies improve on their environmental and social reporting. These guidelines were revised in 2002. One thousand global companies now use some form of triple-bottom-line accounting in line with GRI guidelines—reporting on economic, environmental, and social behaviors and outcomes. Among these companies are 3M, AT&T, General Motors, Ford, Shell, McDonald’s, Dupont, Dow Chemical, Nike, Canon, Electrolux, Ericsson, France Telecom, and some other smaller companies as well.</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">54 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Monologue Versus Dialogue<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Finally, careful examination of a set of recently issued sustainability reports demonstrates the most radical change of all. To legitimately justify an organization’s decisions and actions, corporate accountability is now viewed and described by many as a dialogue between the corporation and its stakeholders and not as a monologue on the part of management. For example, see especially AccountAbility 1000’s AA1000—Principles and Measurement Standards and a U.K. company law reform proposal that would require the dialogue between corporations and their shareholders to be published online. This means that corporate accountability requires listening to a company’s diverse stakeholders as well as responding to them. It also means that many companies now openly recognize that corporate accountability is an evolving and contested concept.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
There is a growing awareness of dialogue as a formal component of corporate accountability. Dialogue is emerging as one of its central and most innovative aspects. Dialogue does not imply that organizations are abdicating their responsibility for decision making. But it does imply a recognition that organizations are embedded in society and rely on it for legitimacy.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">CONCLUSION<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Those managers committed to the capitalistic system realize that it is in their own self-interest to enhance corporate accountability. In a world of instant communication, those corporations that can justify their actions in a clear and sensible way may possess a strong competitive advantage over rivals who maintain a policy of secrecy. It makes good business sense to enhance corporate transparency.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Corporate accountability, however, should not be conceived of as a kind of game. Rather, it is a form of ethical communication among human beings on which the future growth and legitimacy of business depends. As globalization spreads, corporate accountability is becoming the linchpin of the worldwide economic system. As the notion of corporate social responsibility gains credence across the globe, corporate accountability is increasingly viewed as a crucial task for boards of directors, corporate management, business consultants, and accountants. Corporate accountability has always played an important role in the financial markets, but as the concept of corporate accountability broadens, its role in society will gain in importance.</div>
<br />
<div align="RIGHT">
—Moses L. Pava</div>
</span><div align="RIGHT">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="RIGHT">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Corpor ate Accountability </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">55 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Further Readings<br />
<dir>
</dir></span><dir></dir></span><dir><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Bradley, M., & Wallenstein, S. M. (2006). The history of corporate governance in the United States. In M. J. Epstein & K. O. Hanson (Eds.), </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">The accountable corporation </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(pp. 45–72). Westport, CT: Praeger Perspectives.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Carroll, A. B. (1979). A three-dimensional model of corporate performance. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Academy of Management Review, 4</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(4), 497–505.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Financial Accounting Standard Board (FASB). (1978). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Statement of financial accounting concepts no. 1: Objectives of financial reporting by business enterprises. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Norwalk, CT: Author.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Healy, P. M., & Whalen, J. M. (1999). A review of the earnings management literature and its implications for standard setting. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Accounting Horizons, 14</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(4), 365–384.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
KPMG International Survey of Corporate Sustainability Reporting 2000.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Millstein, I. (2006). A perspective on corporate governance: Rules, principles, or both. In M. J. Epstein & K. O. Hanson (Eds.), </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">The accountable corporation </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(pp. 3–14). Westport, CT: Praeger Perspectives.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Pava, M. L., & Epstein, M. (1993). How good is MD&A as an investment tool? </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Journal of Accountancy, 175, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">51–53.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Pava, M. L., & Krausz, J. (2006). The broadening scope of corporate accountability. In P. Allouche (Ed.), </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Corporate social responsibility. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">New York: Palgrave.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Waddock, S. (2004). Creating corporate accountability: Foundational principles to make corporate citizenship real. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Journal of Business Ethics, 50, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">313–327.</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">56 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span></dir><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-size: large;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><div align="CENTER">
CORPORATE MORAL AGENCY</div>
</span><span></span><br />
<span><div align="JUSTIFY">
I</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">nsofar as they are capable of exhibiting intentional action, corporations may be regarded as moral agents. Agents reflectively endorse specific ends and shape the world by imposing those ends on the world. Because agents have this sort of intentional capacity, they are properly characterized as responsible for the actions they impose on the world. Persons are prototypical examples of agents and the class of persons is properly understood as subset of the class of moral agents. In U.S. law, the class "persons" includes entities other than human beings such as corporations. The courts attribute personhood to corporations on pragmatic grounds, finding this a useful convention for the purposes of corporate law. The question of whether or not there are grounds for thinking that, from a metaphysical standpoint, corporations are properly understood as moral agents is a separate matter.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">FRENCH’S VIEW<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
A quarter-century ago, Peter French published an influential essay on the metaphysical status of the corporation. He has subsequently defended the core of that view in a series of books and essays. Despite its many critics, French’s theory of corporate personhood remains the single most influential account of the metaphysical status of corporations. Corporations, as French noted, are of particular interest in comparison to other sorts of collectives or organizations because of their distinct rules of governance and hierarchical structure. In his early work on the metaphysical status of corporations, French reached three main conclusions. First, corporations exhibit intentionality. Second, corporations are capable of exhibiting rationality regarding their intentions. Third, corporations are capable of altering their intentions and patterns of behavior. As a result, he concluded that corporations are full-fledged moral persons and have the privileges, rights, and duties that are, in the normal course of affairs, accorded to moral persons. This claim received sustained criticism over the years. In particular, critics have argued that French’s position is illegitimately </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Corpor ate Mor al Agenc y </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">57 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
anthropomorphic. For example, Richard De George has argued that, unlike human beings, corporations are not ends in themselves. Other critics have argued that it is absurd to suggest that corporate persons have the same emotional status as human persons. Still others have argued that corporations cannot be persons, since all persons have a soul and no corporation has a soul.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">INTENTIONALITY<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
In his early defense of corporate personhood, French grounded his arguments in the belief-desire theory of intentionality. He argued that when the corporate act is consistent with an instantiation of established corporate policy, then it is proper to describe it as having been done by a corporate desire coupled with a corporate belief and so as a corporate intention. Critics seized on French’s use of the belief-desire theory, arguing that, since he wrongly attributed distinctly human intentionality to corporations, his defense or corporate intentionality failed. For example, Manuel Velasquez argues that all attributions of intentions to corporations must be understood as metaphorical since they are not literal mental states. He denies the possibility of such an argument because he stipulates that intentions must be understood as mental states identical to those present in individual human minds. However, this is not the only way of understanding intentionality. One alternative way of understanding intentions is as commitments to future action. Such a characterization of intentions leaves open the possibility that entities other than conscious biological beings may be properly understood as intentional.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Central to the claim that corporations are moral agents is the claim that corporations have intentions. Prosecutors and judges routinely attribute intentionality to corporations. Nonetheless, the attribution of intentions to corporations has been rejected by many theorists as an untenable hypothesis. Partly in response to such criticism, French has modified his view of the metaphysical status of the corporation in two significant ways. First, French has abandoned the idea of corporate "persons" in favor of a defense of corporate "actors" or agents. This move allows French to avoid the criticism that his view is illegitimately anthropomorphic. Second, French now rejects the belief-desire theory of intentionality that he had previously embraced in favor of Michael Bratman’s planning theory of intentionality. This allows him to avoid criticisms associated with the belief-desire theory of intentions.</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">58 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">CORPORATE INTENTIONS<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Bratman’s account of intentions emphasizes their future-directed nature. On his account, intentions are typically elements of plans. Bratman argues that as rational agents with complex goals most of our intentional actions will stem from deliberation and reflection prior to the time of action, that is, from planning. The plans characteristic of human agents have two essential features. First, plans are typically partial or incomplete. They need to be filled in over time. Second, plans typically have a hierarchical structure. Bratman has extended his analysis of the intentions of individuals to shared intentions of a certain type—namely, the intentions shared by two individuals who plan to engage in a joint activity. Consider two individuals who plan to take a trip together. What roles do their shared intention to take a trip together play? First, their shared intention allows for the coordination of planning. Second, their shared intentions structure relevant bargaining. Third, their shared intentions allow for the coordination of activities. On this account, shared intention is a state of affairs that consists of a web of attitudes of the individual participants. Shared intentions are not, then, mere mental states.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
French has suggested that Bratman’s account of intentionality will provide an adequate basis for a theory of corporate intentionality, yet French has not developed a sustained argument for that conclusion. However, Bratman’s analysis of shared intentions has recently been extended to corporations by Denis Arnold. He argues that the state of affairs characteristic of shared intentions is also characteristic of corporations. Typically, corporate decisions are made in accordance with the structure previously characterized by French as a corporate internal decision (CID) structure. This well-known and essential feature of French’s account of corporate moral agency includes hierarchical lines of organizational responsibility, rules of procedure, and corporate policies. A CID structure performs a normative function, that is, it tells members of the corporation how they ought to behave. When employees act in a manner consistent with the CID structure they instantiate corporate intentions. Corporate intentions are states of affairs consisting of both the intersecting attitudes of the class of agents comprising the corporation and the internal decision structure of the organization. The CID structure serves as the frame on which the attitudes of board members, executives, managers, and employees are interwoven to form corporate intentions.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Praiseworthy corporate intentions include value creation, the development of innovative technology, and respectful regard for stakeholders. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Corpor ate Mor al Agenc y </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">59 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Blameworthy corporate intentions include deceptive marketing, systematic dumping of toxic chemicals into pristine natural environments, and theft from shareholders.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Arnold argues that since corporations are properly understood to have intentions, there is a basis for thinking that corporations are properly understood as agents. However, he points out that for corporations to be properly regarded as moral agents, a further condition must also be satisfied. Corporations must be capable of reflectively endorsing corporate intentions. Corporations that are capable of evaluating past decisions and existing plans, of determining whether those intentions ought to remain in place, or whether they should be modified or eliminated in favor of alternative intentions are capable of the requisite reflective endorsement and are properly understood as moral agents.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">CONCLUSION<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
The idea that corporations are properly understood as moral agents remains unpersuasive to many theorists. First, some critics maintain that all agents must be understood as having souls. Since it is implausible to attribute a soul to a corporation, some theorists conclude that corporations cannot be understood as agents. Second, the idea that corporations are capable of reflectively endorsing intentions strikes some theorists as implausible. They argue that reflective endorsement is a quality of human persons and one that cannot reasonably be attributed to organizations.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Defenders of the view that corporations are properly understood as moral agents point out that this view has important implications regarding moral responsibility. For example, if a corporation is properly understood as a moral agent, then it is possible to praise or blame corporations and not just the directors, executives, managers, and workers of a corporation at a particular time. Punishment of the corporation, and not just corporate personnel, is thereby justified when corporate intentions are morally objectionable. In cases where corporation actions are especially pernicious as a result of corporate intentions, corporate capital punishment in the form of the dissolution of the corporation may be justified. So too, corporations that exhibit consistently praiseworthy behavior as a result of corporate intentions are justifiably rewarded independently of corporate personnel.</div>
<br />
<div align="RIGHT">
—Denis G. Arnold</div>
</span><div align="RIGHT">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="RIGHT">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">60 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Further Readings<br />
<dir>
</dir></span><dir></dir></span><dir><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Arnold, D. G. (2006). Corporate moral agency. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Midwest Studies in Philosophy, XXX, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">279–291.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Bratman, M. (1987). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Intention, plans, and practical reason. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Bratman, M. (1999). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Faces of intention: Selected essays on intention and agency. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
De George, R. (1986). Corporations and morality. In H. Curtler (Ed.), </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Shame, responsibility and the corporation </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(pp. 57–75). New York: Haven.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Donaldson, T. (1986). Personalizing corporate ontology: The French way. In H. Curtler (Ed.), </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Shame, responsibility and the corporation </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(pp. 99–112). New York: Haven.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
French, P. T. (1979). The corporation as a moral person. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">American Philosophical Quarterly, 16, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">207–215.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
French, P. T. (1984). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Collective and corporate responsibility. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">New York: Columbia University Press.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
French, P. T. (1992). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Responsibility matters. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
French, P. T. (1995). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Corporate ethics. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">New York: Harcourt Brace.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
French, P. T. (1996). Integrity, intentions, and corporations. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">American Business Law Journal, 34, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">141–155.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
May, L. (1987). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">The morality of groups: Collective responsibility, group-based harm, and corporate rights. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Velasquez, M. G. (2003). Debunking corporate responsibility. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Business Ethics Quarterly, 13</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">(4), 531–562.</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Social Entr epr eneurship </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">61 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span></dir><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-size: large;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><div align="CENTER">
SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP</div>
</span><span></span><br />
<span><div align="JUSTIFY">
S</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">ocial entrepreneurs create social value through the use of the entrepreneurship model. Social entrepreneurship relates to many business forms but fundamentally exists as a model that organizations are able to use in pursuit of goals directed toward building value for the society within which they are embedded. Organizations built on this model follow closely with the traditional path of entrepreneurship, pursuing perceived opportunities to achieve their goals. The key to understanding social entrepreneurship lies in acknowledging that it transcends traditional business model boundaries and can occur in any sector of business, such as in the private for-profit or not-for-profit sector or in the public sector.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
To engage in social entrepreneurship, the organization is typically driven by a social entrepreneur. The social entrepreneur shares many similar skills with the traditional entrepreneur. These shared skills are identified as designing a mission with the core purpose to create and sustain value; pursuing new opportunities to serve the mission; engaging in continuous innovation, adaptation, and learning; acting boldly without being limited by the resources currently available; and exhibiting a level of heightened accountability to the stakeholders affected and for the outcomes as a result of the mission. The distinguishing factor for social entrepreneurs is that they create </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">social </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">value through the use of this model to create economic value.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
While the entrepreneurial skill set is very similar between the traditional entrepreneur and the social entrepreneur, there is a large difference regarding their individual value orientation. Social entrepreneurs are more likely to have experienced some sort of transformative experience during their life, which pushes social improvement to the front of their core values. Most social entrepreneurs are also very active in the social sector throughout their lives, beginning at an early age. This social activism is then combined with their entrepreneurial skill set to enable them to pursue their social missions through social entrepreneurship.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Social entrepreneurship can often be confused with other business models or practices that are designed to create accountability to society within the </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">62 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
business sector. Two other terms that are sometimes misused are </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">social ventures </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">and </span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">social enterprises. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">Both social ventures and social enterprises are the legal entities that are created as an end result of social entrepreneurship.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
It is also useful to distinguish between a social venture and a social enterprise. Most frequently, the term </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">venture </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">is used to describe organizations that are the result of a venture capital investment, but with social ventures this is the result of social venture capital. The term </span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">enterprise, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">on the other hand, is typically associated not with an organization built on venture capital but with one that secured its financing through other means. Regardless of the methods of financing, both social ventures and social enterprises are two possible outcomes of social entrepreneurship. Social entrepreneurship must also be differentiated from terms such as </span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">sustainable enterprises, corporate social responsibility, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">and </span></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">business ethics. </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">While it is possible for a social venture, or a social enterprise, to practice social responsibility or sustainability, they are different concepts within the same theoretical sphere of social awareness.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">A BRIEF HISTORY<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Although social entrepreneurship has only recently received significant academic and professional attention, the fundamental concept has been in practice by individuals throughout the history of business enterprises. Some examples from the past include David Brower (the United States), Vinoba Bhave (India), Florence Nightingale (the United Kingdom), and Jean Monnet (France). David Brower was the Sierra Club’s first executive director and built it into a global network designed to serve environmental issues. Vinoba Bhave founded the Land Gift movement in India, allowing the redistribution of more than 7,000,000 acres of land to the landless untouchables, individuals who were low-caste Hindus and viewed as "polluted" and separated from the rest of society. Florence Nightingale revolutionized health care through the foundation of the first school for nurses. Jean Monnet led the reconstruction of France after World War II and established methods to integrate Europe economically.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
These individuals pursued their missions and extensively influenced the societies around them through creativity, leadership, and a vision of social improvement. These acts are distinguished from those of other socially conscious individuals by the entrepreneurial methods used to pursue their social goals. These social entrepreneurs paved new paths to pursue these ideas. Individuals such as these, along with countless social advocacy groups and </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Social Entr epr eneurship </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">63 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
community initiatives, have all set the foundation from which the current identity of social entrepreneurship has been derived.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Social entrepreneurship began to gain visibility and definition through the work of Bill Drayton and his founding of Ashoka in 1980. Ashoka became the first to pioneer into the concept of "social venture capital," providing funding for entrepreneurial individuals in pursuit of social change through innovation. The founding of Ashoka marked the beginning of social entrepreneurship as a functional and practical business theory. As social entrepreneurship continues to gain prominence and validity, it is becoming an increasing popular topic of academic discussion.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
With the increase in practical applications of social entrepreneurship, it has become clear that it is a viable model within any of the business sectors. Social entrepreneurship is often categorized as a cross-sector model, in which the organizations applying the model often lie somewhere in the middle of the continuum that runs between the private for-profit and not-for-profit sector and the public business sector, blurring the boundaries of these traditional business sectors. However, as blurred as these boundaries may become, the legal distinctions between organizations in each of these sectors still exists, making it useful to examine the distinctions between each.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">THE FOR-PROFIT SECTOR<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Social entrepreneurship within the for-profit sector references organizations that are legally defined as existing to generate profit, while the organization defines its primary mission as one grounded in social improvement or development. When considering these for-profit organizations, it is important not to confuse the act of social entrepreneurship with the act of stewardship. The stewardship model describes organizations that acknowledge their responsibility to society and act on those responsibilities but still identify their primary objective as that of generating profit. For the for-profit social entrepreneur, the ultimate objective is to design a process that allows the organization to generate profit as a by-product of its improvements to society, as opposed to generating social value as a by-product of profit.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
By maintaining the for-profit business model, it is easier for these organizations to achieve long-term financial sustainability. This occurs because the organization is often more successful at obtaining sustainable revenue streams. These revenue streams are more stable because the organization understands </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">64 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
that its products must not only be socially beneficial but also just as attractive as a competitor’s product, even if the competitor isn’t driven by the same social standards. This is the result of consumers who may not know, or care, about the social mission behind the company.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Another variation of social entrepreneurship also occurs frequently within the for-profit sector—social intrapreneurship. Similar to social entrepreneurship, social intrapreneurship has become increasingly popular over the last decade. The distinguishing characteristic of entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship is that intrapreneurship occurs within preexisting organizations, often creating extensions of the same business or expanding into new businesses. One of the attractive features of intrapreneurship is the ability to fund these efforts through the preexisting organization. Thus, often the efforts of intrapreneurship are more successful because the risk of financial failure is smaller when the organization is backed by a secure revenue stream.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Excellent examples of for-profit social entrepreneurship can be found in organizations such as Newman’s Own or Ben & Jerry’s. Founded in 1978 by Ben Cohen and Jerry Greenfield, Ben & Jerry’s began with a single ice cream shop. Explosive growth netted Ben & Jerry’s sales of more than $155 million by the year 2000, amid rumors of Ben & Jerry’s becoming the target of takeover interest. The rumors were confirmed as Ben & Jerry’s was acquired by Unilever, an Anglo-Dutch corporation, in early 2000.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Nothing in the foregoing overview captures the spirit of social entrepreneurship undergirding Ben & Jerry’s. In 1985, company founders Ben and Jerry institutionalized their long-standing commitment to social and environmental issues by establishing the Ben & Jerry’s Foundation, funded through donation of 7.5% of the company’s annual pretax profits. The company has not relegated its social and environmental action to its funding of the Foundation. At every decision point, the leadership of Ben & Jerry’s has sought to provide social benefits from the ongoing operation of their primary business. Among many other initiatives, in a successful effort to divert its ice-cream waste from the local wastewater treatment facility, Ben & Jerry’s began feeding a pig farm with its ice-cream waste; the company helped establish a nonprofit initiative known as "1% for Peace"; they came out against bovine growth hormone, based on concern about its adverse economic impact on family farming; introduced Rainforest Crunch ice cream through its scoop shops, with sales of the ice cream indirectly benefiting rainforest preservation efforts; and to help combat Vermont dairy farmers’ losses during a period of volatile prices in the </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Social Entr epr eneurship </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">65 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
dairy industry, Ben & Jerry’s paid a dairy premium totaling half a million dollars to the family farmers who supply the milk for Ben & Jerry’s ice cream.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">THE NOT-FOR-PROFIT SECTOR<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Not-for-profit social entrepreneurship is represented by organizations that have legally defined themselves as existing for some other purpose than to generate profit, a direct inverse to for-profit organizations. However, within this model, many of these organizations are engaging in what would typically be classified as for-profit business practices to attain sustainability within their business model.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Within the not-for-profit sector, three primary types of organizations exist—public benefit, mutual benefit, and religious. The most common use of social entrepreneurship within this sector is within those designated for public benefit. This is because of the nature of the models; a public benefit not-for-profit exists to benefit the public. Both mutual benefit and religious not-for-profits are less focused on widespread social improvement and are more focused on providing services for a very specific audience. However, it is still possible for social entrepreneurship to exist in each of these types.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
The social entrepreneurship model is often mistakenly associated with social activism within the not- for-profit sector; however, the two concepts are fundamentally different. Social activists pursue a social goal as their main mission but are distinguished from social entrepreneurs because they pursue these changes external to the business environment. The distinguishing factor in social entrepreneurship is that these organizations pursue their social goals while simultaneously engaging in market-driven activities. Organizations acting in this sector are typically less financially independent than those in the for-profit sector. With not-for-profit organizations, the fiscal gains through entrepreneurship act less as a method of profit generation and sustainability and more as a method of offsetting their costs or expanding their programs. While they are not as financially independent as their for-profit counterparts, the offset expenses do allow these organizations to engage in more creative opportunities that may not be possible through grants and donations alone.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
However, with the expansion of revenue streams for these organizations, an issue arises with the allocation of these subsidizing revenues. Within the United States, any income a not-for-profit generates that is not substantially related to the social purpose of the organization becomes taxable. This is the </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">66 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
result of the competition for the consumer’s purchasing power. Many for-profit organizations feel that without the tax an arena is created for unfair competition. For many not-for-profit organizations, this means that becoming entrepreneurial and seeking new revenue streams may not be as effective as hoped.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Ben & Jerry’s is again instructive on this point. Perhaps the company’s most notable foray into social entrepreneurship has been the establishment of the PartnerShop program, a series of scoop shops that are independently owned and operated by community-based nonprofit organizations. Ben & Jerry’s waives the standard franchise fees and provides additional support to help nonprofits operate strong businesses among youth and low-income folks by providing economic development and employment opportunities. It should be noted that social entrepreneurship has been around for centuries in the form of enterprises such as gift shops and thrift shops associated with churches and museums.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">THE PUBLIC SECTOR<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Outside of entrepreneurship in the private sector, it becomes more difficult to engage in social entrepreneurship, often because of inherent political and administrative constraints. Whereas the not-for-profit organization can be burdened with donors and grants who have predefined goals for the organization, the public organization is also held to often more stringent preestablished rules, regulations, and legislation. However, where the public sector has succeeded in engaging in social entrepreneurship, such efforts have enabled the institutions to expand beyond their previous constraints, thereby increasing the effect and reach of their mission. The driving force for entrepreneurship in the public sector has been a combination of a need for increased resources to fund specific programs and for a way to counteract the perceived inefficiencies of government programs.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Given that entrepreneurial activities such as risk taking are often looked down on by the public and government officials, social entrepreneurship often occurs much more frequently than intrapreneurship. Typically, entrepreneurship occurs when tasks are outsourced from local governments to organizations created specifically to coordinate specific tasks for the government outside of the public sector where it is able to function beyond the typical regulatory constraints. These organizations are then able to not only support the programs or entities they were designed to support through their services or products but are also able to generate extra revenue by expanding their programs to other organizations that can derive benefit from them.</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Social Entr epr eneurship </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">67 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
There exist numerous examples of social entrepreneurship within the public sector. Following years of developing customized information technology applications for in-house use, the City of San Diego outsourced its information technology function to a stand-alone not-for-profit entity, the San Diego Data Processing Corporation. One principal goal of this initiative has been to successfully market government-specific technology applications to other California municipalities, all the while continuing to meet the technology needs of the elected officials and staff of San Diego. Product endorsements and "city stores," which sell items such as customized street signs, are becoming increasingly common; at the state and national levels, adopt-a-highway programs represent efforts by governmental agencies to engage in social entrepreneurship that serves to offset the high cost of road maintenance through revenue-generating alliances with private business enterprises.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">SECURING FUNDING FOR SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURS<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Similar to profit-oriented entrepreneurship, social entrepreneurship is often a process undertaken by individuals who have a vision and are pursuing that vision. Funding for these ventures can come from grants, donations, or what has been called social venture capital. Social venture capital, first defined by Ashoka, is the process of securing funding to advance the interests of the organization through investors who wish to have a stake in the organization. As such, social venture capital is often focused within the for-profit sector of social venturing; however, it is possible for social venture capital to be invested in not-for-profit sector ventures as well.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
An important issue in building social venture capital has been designing a way for investors to receive feedback from the organizations they have invested in to know whether their investment has been successful or if the organization is not doing as well as it should be. In the typical venture, this can be done through simple financial analysis and benchmarking as the organization develops and evolves. With a social venture investment, this is much more difficult because of the difficulty of measuring social impact. The success with developing these social feedback tools is evident through the rising number of organizations that have been created to provide social venture capital such as Ashoka, Social Venture Partners, the Social Venture Capital Foundation, the Schwab Foundation, and others.</div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">68 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">MEASUREMENT TOOLS FOR SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Regardless of the sector social entrepreneurship occurs in, it has become increasingly important to design methods to measure the impact social entrepreneurship has on its stakeholders. Much of the measurement throughout its history has relied on qualitative, case-based research. While this type of research has been able to define the areas that social entrepreneurship affects, it is less effective at measuring the actual level of impact that it has on society. The need for measurement has led to the development of tools that allow organizations to measure both financial and social impact. This is frequently called double-bottom-line (DBL) or triple-bottom-line (TBL) analysis. TBL divides the goals of an organization into three sectors—social, environmental, and financial. DBL divides the goals into two sectors—social and financial. DBL is the more often cited tool within social entrepreneurship, but both attempt to achieve the same goal of dividing the organization’s impact into defined areas and measuring the effectiveness of that impact in each area.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
To measure the goals of an organization using DBL, they are often redesigned in a way that allows the impact on society to be quantitatively measured. This enables the organization to track the success or failure of its social initiatives similarly to that of a financial initiative. Columbia University’s Research Initiative for Social Enterprise (RISE) is one group that has contributed to this research. They have identified and analyzed several methods for identifying and measuring social impact. Their efforts have identified social impact measurement in three key areas of analysis—processes, impact, and monetization. Process analysis allows organizations to measure the correlation of their outputs with their social goals. Impact analysis allows organizations to analyze the effect these outputs have on society and compare them with the next best alternative for their resources, a method that is equivalent to measuring the opportunity costs of the organizations’ operational processes. Monetization analysis allows the firm to place dollar values to its social impact and is the most effective in demonstrating a direct correlation between money invested and the social return.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
One example of monetization analysis is social return on investment. This method, designed by REDF (formerly the Roberts Enterprise Development Fund), is used to develop a cost-benefit analysis of a social project. Rubicon Landscape Services used this method to analyze the impact their organization made by employing people with disabilities and economically challenged individuals. By calculating the amount of money they were saving the government </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Social Entr epr eneurship </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">69 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
in social service costs and the amount of additional tax revenue generated through their employment, they were able to measure the impact this program had on society with a precise dollar amount.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
All three measurement methods enable the social entrepreneur to gauge his or her success at using the organization’s resources in the most effective manner to support the social mission. In addition to the RISE project, many other organizations have also begun developing their own private and publicly available measurement tools, which provide a way for social venture capitalists to measure the impact of their investment, as well as a way for organizations to gauge their own success and make adjustments as they grow.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">CRITICISM OF SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Critics of social entrepreneurship, and corporate social responsibility, believe the purpose of business activity is to serve the interests of stockholders, leaving social action to entities existing beyond the private for-profit sector. These critics argue that business leaders are ill equipped to make informed social decisions and that business leaders are solely responsible for acting in a manner that benefits the individuals who have employed them. This stance is grounded in the theory that economic returns and social returns are inherently at odds with one another, causing the pursuit of one return to reduce or eliminate the other.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Social entrepreneurs have found that this stance is inadequate for serving the needs of the community. Entities beyond the private for-profit sector have been unable to provide for many of the needs of the community. Social entrepreneurs have identified this gap in service as a viable business opportunity. The businesses built on these opportunities have a positive link between economic returns and social returns, both within the organization, and in its influence on its stakeholders. Thus, although many critics believe that social responsibility is counter to economic responsibility, social entrepreneurs have found a method that allows the two to act in parallel.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">EDUCATION<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Along with the growing number of social investment and analysis organizations, social entrepreneurship has also become increasingly popular with universities and other educational institutions. Many business schools have not </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">PAR T I: Corpor ate Social Responsibility and Related Ter ms </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">70 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
only introduced social entrepreneurship into their MBA curriculum but some have also begun to build centers focused specifically on social entrepreneurship. Examples include Duke University’s Center for the Advancement of Social Entrepreneurship, Columbia University’s Research Initiative for Social Enterprise, and Oxford University’s Skoll Centre for Social Entrepreneurship. In addition, competitions have come up to promote social entrepreneurship within these universities, such as the Global Social Venture Competition held at the University of California, Berkeley. Universities have also begun to reward competitors within traditional business plan competitions for being socially cognizant of their impact on society.</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">CONCLUSION<br />
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: x-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Social entrepreneurship has become an increasingly influential business model. It allows for organizations in all sectors of business to ground themselves on socially conscious missions and goals while still retaining the beneficial traits that have been previously available only to the for-profit sector. Social entrepreneurs are able to do this through recognizing and pursuing feasible business models that provide innovative products and services, allowing it to generate revenue while still serving its primary social goal. Social entrepreneurship has been given the opportunity to grow in impact and popularity due to its increased presence in the business and academic realms and will continue to expand as a viable business model as the global society continues to call for more socially conscious and accountable organizations.</div>
<br />
<div align="RIGHT">
—Lance Schaeffer and Craig P. Dunn</div>
</span><br /></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Further Readings<br />
<dir>
</dir></span><dir></dir></span><dir><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Barendsen, L., & Gardner, M. (2004). Is the social entrepreneur a new type of leader? </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Leader to Leader, 8, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">43–51.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Clark, C., Rosenzweig, W., Long, D., & Olsen, S. (2005, November). Double bottom line project report: Assessing social impact in double bottom line ventures. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Research Initiative on Social Entrepreneurship </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">[Electronic version]. Retrieved from www.riseproject.org/DBL_Methods_ Catalog.pdf</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Dees, J. G. (2001, May). </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">The meaning of "social entrepreneurship." </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Durham, NC: Center for the Advancement of Social Entrepreneurship. Retrieved from www .fuqua.duke.edu/centers/case/documents/dees_sedef.pdf</span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: small;">Social Entr epr eneurship </span></span><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">71 </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: HelveticaNeue MediumCond,HelveticaNeue MediumCond; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><div align="JUSTIFY">
Friedman, M. (1970, September 13). The social responsibility of business to increase its profits. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">New York Times Magazine, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">p. 32.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Harding, R. (2004). Social enterprise: The new economic engine? </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Business Strategy Review, 4, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">39–43.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Mort, G. S., Weerawardena, J., & Carnegie, K. (2002). Social entrepreneurship: Towards conceptualization. </div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<br /></div>
</span><div align="JUSTIFY">
<i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 13, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">76–88.</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
<div align="JUSTIFY">
Naumes, M., Kammermeyer, J., & Naumes, W. (2005, November). Social entrepreneurship: A relevant concept for business schools? Hellenic Communication Serve, LLC. Retrieved from http://helleniccomserve.com/naumes1.html</div>
</span></span></dir><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Roper, J., & Cheney, G. (2005). Leadership, learning and human resource management: The meanings of social entrepreneurship today. </span><br /></span><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">Corporate Governance, 10, </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;">95–104.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span>NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-50321618519649407202015-01-16T10:40:00.000-08:002015-01-16T10:40:37.660-08:00Corporate Social Responsibility in Retrospect and Prospect: Exploring the Life-Cycle of an Essentially Contested Concept <div align="LEFT">
<br /></div>
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">No. 59-2011 ICCSR Research Paper Series – ISSN 1479-5124 </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">
</span><b><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">Corporate Social Responsibility in Retrospect and Prospect: <br />
<br />
Exploring the Life-Cycle of an Essentially Contested Concept <br />
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;">(Introduction to Jean-Pascal Gond and Jeremy Moon eds (2011) <br />
</span><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: x-small;"></span></span></i><br />
<i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: x-small;">Routledge Major Work on Corporate Social Responsibility</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: x-small;"><br /></span><br /></span><span style="font-size: x-small;">) </span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span></i><br />
<i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">Jean-Pascal Gond and Jeremy Moon <br />
</span><br /></span><br /></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><b><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">Research Paper Series <br />
<br />
International Centre for Corporate Social Responsibility <br />
<br />
ISSN 1479-5124 <br />
<br />
Editor: Rob Caruana <br />
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">International Centre for Corporate Social Responsibility <br />
<br />
Nottingham University Business School <br />
<br />
Nottingham University <br />
<br />
Jubilee Campus <br />
<br />
Wollaton Road <br />
<br />
Nottingham NG8 1BB <br />
<br />
United Kingdom <br />
<br />
Tel: +44 (0) 115 84 66798 <br />
<br />
Fax: +44 (0) 115 84 68074 <br />
<br />
Email: robert.caruana@nottingham.ac.uk <br />
<br />
http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/business/ICCSR 2 </span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;">2 </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;">
</span></span><b><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">Corporate Social Responsibility in Retrospect and Prospect: <br />
<br />
Exploring the Life-Cycle of an Essentially Contested Concept <br />
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span></i><br />
<i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">„„Corporate social responsibility means something, but not always the same thing to everybody." Votaw (1972, p. 25) <br />
<br />
"The Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) field presents not only a landscape of theories but also a proliferation of approaches, which are controversial, complex and unclear." Garriga and Melé (2004, p. 51) <br />
</span><br /></span><br /></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><b><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">INTRODUCTIONi <br />
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Through the twentieth century, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) developed both as a management idea (Porter and Kramer 2006, Donham 1927) and as an academic concept (Bowen 1953, Walsh, Weber and Margolis 2003, Clark 1916).</span><span style="font-size: xx-small;">ii </span><span style="font-size: small;">This development has been reflected in the depth and breadth of its place in management and the academy, particularly management and business scholarship and education (Cheit 1978, Frederick 2006, Matten and Moon 2004, Moon and Orlitzky 2011). The development has certainly been uneven but it is also true to say that CSR‘s status in the second decade of the twenty-first century is greater than it had been in the previous hundred years (de Bakker, Groenewegen and den Hond 2006, Lockett, Moon and Visser 2006, Margolis and Walsh 2003). The emphasis of this collection is certainly academic but it also includes numerous accounts of CSR as a management concept and practice. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Corporate social responsibility broadly refers to: (a) the expectation that business is responsible </span><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">to </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;">society—in the sense of accountability (Bowen 1953, Carroll 1979) and </span><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">for </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;">society—in the sense of compensating for negative externalities and contributing to social welfare (Crouch 2006, Arrow 1974); (b) the expectation that </span><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">business conducts itself a responsible fashion </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;">(Carroll 1979); and more specifically (c) the </span><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">management by business of the corporation-society interface through the enhancement of stakeholder relationships </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;">(Barnett 2007, Gond and Matten 2007, Freeman 1984) . 3 </span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;">3 </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;">
</span></span><span style="font-size: small;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">However, as we shall see below, definitions have varied together with the concepts used to describe the social phenomena corresponding to CSR. Although these transformations usually reflect sound conceptual developments (Wood 1991, Carroll 2008) or changes in managerial practices and visions they also reveal the </span><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">zeitgeist </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;">that accompany the cycle of consulting and managerial fads and fashions (The Economist 2005, 2008, Abrahamson 1996, den Hond, de Bakker and Neergard 2007). </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Thus CSR can be understood as dynamic, overlapping and contextual. Its dynamic quality in large part rests on the developments in business-society relations – including through new or re-invigorated understandings of </span><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">ir</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;">responsibility. The overlapping nature of CSR reveals that it is something of a ‗cluster concept‘ (Moon 2002: 4) reaching into and drawing from such cognate fields as business ethics, corporate governance, business strategy, sustainability, business-society relations and business-government relations, to name but a few. Although the emergence of CSR has been most conspicuous in the USA (see Volume 1 in particular), it is also true that CSR has also emerged in very different national contexts, reflecting different corporate governance, institutional, economic, political, social and ethical contexts such that CSR stories can be told in a variety of countries (see Volume 3 in particular). Moreover, even within and across countries different sectors have developed distinctive CSR trajectories, often reflecting respective balances of risk and opportunity, or market structure and ownership. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">As a result of this dynamic, overlapping and contextual character, a broad range of labels, concepts and constructs have been used to describe and theorize the social phenomena that correspond to CSR—e.g., Businessmen Responsibility, Corporate Social Performance, Corporate Social Responsiveness, The Triple Bottom Line, Corporate Stakeholder Responsibility or Corporate Citizenship—to name but a few. We use the label of CSR as an overarching ‗umbrella construct‘ as suggested by Hirsh and Levin who define this category as ―broad concepts used to encompass and account for a diverse set of phenomena‖ (1999, p. 199). In line with Garriga and Melé (2004) and Gond and Matten (2007), we contend that in the specific case of CSR, the set of phenomena encompassed by this broad concept refers by and large to the business and society interface. 4 </span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;">4 </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;">
</span></span><span style="font-size: small;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Our purpose in this introduction is to briefly account for the development of the CSR umbrella construct in practice and academia, in order to lay the ground for organizing the perspectives we have used to make sense of the CSR literature in this collection. We rely on several metaphors that shed complementary lights on the complex of CSR genesis and development in theory and practice. According to Morgan (1980, p. 612) metaphors are useful to question theoretical assumptions. Metaphors are effective when they can link two phenomena that are perceived as overlapping yet significantly different. Metaphors also offer a powerful way of accounting for the nature and development of an academic concept. <br />
<br />
We first review the emergence and changes of definitions of the CSR construct, and we infer from this exercise that CSR can be described as ‗</span><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">chameleon concept‟ </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;">as its definition and nature seems to change over time. To address this changing nature, we rely on a second marketing metaphor and investigate the CSR </span><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">„product life-cycle‟ </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;">in line with prior works focused on conceptual developments in organization theory and business and society (Hirsch and Levin 1999, Gond and Crane 2010). This exercise allows specifying the nature of CSR as a permanent issue and an area of debates in management theory and practice, rather than a well stabilized construct with a clear and constant operationalization. The third, philosophical, metaphor we mobilized to interpret this state of affairs and deepen our understanding of CSR is the notion of </span><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">„essentially contested concept‟ </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;">proposed by Gallie (1955 – 1956) (see also, Moon 2002, Okoye 2009). We finally explain and briefly introduce our selection of texts in the four volumes. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">
</span><b><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">THE CHANGING NATURE OF CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY: <br />
<br />
CSR AS A CHAMELEON CONCEPT <br />
</span><br /></span><br /></b><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">The ‗chameleon‘ is probably the best animal metaphor for describing the changing nature of CSR both as a managerial idea and as an academic concept. From a managerial viewpoint, the ‗social responsibility ideology‘ has emerged in the US in the late 1800s from a tradition of industrial paternalism or philanthropy grounded in the religious beliefs of leading captains of industry such as Andrew Carnegie or John D. Rockefeller (Heald 1970, Carroll 2008). Contrary to a received view (e.g., Porter and Kramer 2006), social responsibility has been shaped by businessmen themselves (Bowen 1953, Frederick 2006, Swanson 2008). It is to a large extent a by-product of 5 </span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;">5 </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;">
</span></span><span style="font-size: small;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">the broader movement of managerial professionalization (see, e.g., Abrams 1951, Donham, 1927) that accompanied the progressive separation of corporate ownership and corporate control (Berle and Means 1932). This separation has created both a need for the new class of ‗professional managers‘ to justify their social status vis-à-vis the society, and the possibility to do so, in enhancing forms of managerial discretion that had no historical precedent (Friedman 1970, Bowen 1953, Berle and Means 1932). <br />
<br />
As an ideology, social responsibility is aimed at enhancing the legitimacy of both ‗big business‘ and its management (Acquier and Gond 2007, Moon, Kang and Gond 2010, Pasquero 2005). The legitimacy of the new ‗giant‘ corporations under cephalisation was indeed contested at the beginning of the prior century (Chandler 1962, 1977). On the one side, the so-called ―muckrakers‖ vocally denounced corporate scandals (e.g., Sinclair 1946), raising public concerns about corporate regulation (Markham 2002). On the other side, this uncontrolled development of ‗hierarchy‘—an inherent feature of corporations as organizational forms (Williamson 1985)—was perceived as a direct threat to American democratic ideals (Miller and O'Leary 1989). In this new context, executives started thinking about the perception of their business activities in the eyes of what was broadly defined as the ‗general public‘. The first ‗public relations‘ departments were created (Heald 1970) and with them emerged the idea that corporations have a duty to serve the general public, and diffused the notion of </span><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">public service </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;">that corresponds to an early form of social responsibility (Toynbee 1953). </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">In the 1920s, social responsibility was most commonly approached by managers in terms of </span><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">stewardship </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;">and </span><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">trusteeship</span></span></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;">, two notions inspired by the protestant religion (Bowen 1953, Carroll 2008, Heald 1970). ―Stewardship‖ contends that ―those who own property have the duty of using and administering it, not exclusively for their own purpose, but in ways that will serve the needs of the whole society‖ whereas ―trusteeship‖ affirms that ―[T]he owner is a trustee accountable to God and society‖ (Bowen 1953, p. 33). According to Heald (1961, 1970) these two concepts provided the ideological foundations that laid the ground for the development of CSR in the USA until the 1960s, and the most noticeable innovation of the 1950s and the 1960s would be the formulation and diffusion of the </span><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">social responsibility </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;">label itself. In a bit less than 50 years, CSR was thus successively approached in the managerial world through 6 </span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;">6 </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;">
</span></span><span style="font-size: small;"></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">notions as diverse as ‗public service‘, ‗stewardship‘, ‗trusteeship‘ and finally ‗social responsibility‘. <br />
<br />
Between the 1950s and the 1960s, social responsibility moved from practice to academia and CSR became a theoretical concept on its own (Heald 1970). This process would accelerate the pace of CSR transformations. Howard R. Bowen is often credited with being the founder of ‗modern corporate social responsibility‘ (Wood 1991, Carroll 2008, Carroll 1999), through the publication of his landmark book </span><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">Social Responsibilities of the Businessman </span></span></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;">in 1953. Although his book laid strong institutional economic foundations for studying social responsibility as a tool for corporate behaviours regulation (Acquier, Gond and Pasquero 2011), the academic posterity does not remain much more that its page 6 definition of social responsibility as ―[…] the obligations of businessmen to pursue those policies, to make those decisions, or to follow those lines of actions which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of our society‖ (p. 6). This first definition of businessmen‘s social responsibility opened a subsequent succession of academic refinements and redefinitions. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Table I provides an overview of the CSR ‗definitional work‘ that has been already reviewed in depth by Carroll (1999, 2008). The chameleon kept changing its form, as several authors proposed alternative conceptualizations to capture the social phenomenon of CSR, such as corporate social responsiveness (―CSR-2‖) that in the 1970s focused on the management of social issues (e.g., Frederick 1978) or corporate social performance that aims at integrating the prior notion of social responsibility (e.g., Carroll 1979). 7 </span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;">7 </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman,Times New Roman; font-size: small;"></span></span>
<br />
<table border="1" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0" dir="LTR" style="width: 620px;">
<tbody>
<tr><td height="13" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<b><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: small;">Table 1. Illustrative CSR Concepts and Definitions </span><br /></span><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;">Author(s) </span></span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;"></span></span><br /></td>
<td height="13" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<b><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;">Construct proposed </span></span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;"><br /></span></span></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;"><br /></span><br /></span><br /></td>
<td height="13" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<b><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;">Definition provided </span></span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;"><br /></span></span></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;"><br /></span><br /></span><br /></td>
<td height="13" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<b><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;">Focus / Perspective </span></span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;"><br /></span></span></i><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana; font-size: xx-small;"><br /></span><br /></span><br /></td>
</tr>
<tr><td height="24" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Bowen (1953) </span><br /></td>
<td height="24" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Businessmen social responsibility </span><br /></td>
<td height="24" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">―It refers to the obligations of businessmen to pursue those policies, to make those decisions, or to follow those lines of actions which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of our society‖ (p. 6) </span><br /></td>
<td height="24" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Businessmen / Normative / Institutional </span><br /></td>
</tr>
<tr><td height="27" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Davis (1960) </span><br /></td>
<td height="27" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Corporate social responsibility </span><br /></td>
<td height="27" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">―businessmen‘s decisions and actions taken for reasons at least partially beyond the firm‘s direct economic or technical interest‖ (p. 70) </span><br /></td>
<td height="27" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Business men / Normative / Beyond expectations </span><br /></td>
</tr>
<tr><td height="27" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">McGuire (1963) </span><br /></td>
<td height="27" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Corporate social responsibility </span><br /></td>
<td height="27" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">―The idea of social responsibilities supposes that the corporation has not only economic and legal obligations but also certain responsibilities to society which extend beyond these obligations‖ (p. 144) </span><br /></td>
<td height="27" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Corporation / Normative / Beyond expectations </span><br /></td>
</tr>
<tr><td height="37" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Walton (1967) </span><br /></td>
<td height="37" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Corporate social responsibility </span><br /></td>
<td height="37" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">―In short, the new concept of social responsibility recognizes the intimacy of the relationships between the corporation and society and realizes that such relationships must be kept in mind by top managers as the corporation and the related groups pursue their respective goals‖ (p. 18) </span><br /></td>
<td height="37" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Top managers / Normative / Institutional </span><br /></td>
</tr>
<tr><td height="31" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Friedman (1970) </span><br /></td>
<td height="31" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Business social responsibility </span><br /></td>
<td height="31" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">―There is one and only one social responsibility of business—to use its resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits so long as it stays within the rules of the game, which is to say, engages in open and free competition without deception or fraud.‖ (p.LAST) </span><br /></td>
<td height="31" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Normative / Critical / Profit focus </span><br /></td>
</tr>
<tr><td height="50" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Eells and Walton (1974) </span><br /></td>
<td height="50" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Corporate social responsibility </span><br /></td>
<td height="50" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">―In its broadest sense, corporate social responsibility represents a concern with the needs and goals of society which goes beyond the merely economic. Insofar as the business system as it exists today can only survive in an effectively functioning free society, the corporate social responsibility movement represents a broad concern with business‘s role in supporting and improving social welfare‖ (p. 247) </span><br /></td>
<td height="50" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Normative / Institutional / Ecological / Welfare focused </span><br /></td>
</tr>
<tr><td height="18" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Frederick (1978 [1994]) </span><br /></td>
<td height="18" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Corporate social responsiveness </span><br /></td>
<td height="18" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">―‗Corporate social responsiveness refers‘ to the capacity of a corporation to respond to social pressures‖ (1994, p. 247) </span><br /></td>
<td height="18" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Corporation / Institutional </span><br /></td>
</tr>
<tr><td height="24" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Carroll (1979) </span><br /></td>
<td height="24" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Corporate social responsibility </span><br /></td>
<td height="24" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">―The social responsibility of business encompasses the economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary expectations that society has of organizations at a given point in time‖ (p. 500) </span><br /></td>
<td height="24" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Business / Integrative </span><br /></td>
</tr>
<tr><td height="50" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Carroll (1979) </span><br /></td>
<td height="50" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Corporate social performance </span><br /></td>
<td height="50" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">―…for managers to engage in CSR they needed to have (a) a basic definition of CSR, (b) an understanding/enumeration of the issues for which a social responsibility existed (or, in modern terms, stakeholders to whom the firm had a responsibility, relationship or dependency), and (c) a specification of the philosophy of responsiveness to the issues‖ (as reported in Carroll, 1999, p. 283-283) </span><br /></td>
<td height="50" valign="TOP" width="25%">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Managers / Integrative </span><br /></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-5002730395154388112015-01-16T10:29:00.000-08:002015-01-16T10:37:22.673-08:00Novo presidenteNovos sonhos<br />
Novas promessas<br />
Novas frustrações<br />
Novas conquistas<br />
Novos ricos<br />
Novos pobres<br />
Novas esperanças<br />
Novos desesperosNDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-262620898444456712008-11-26T05:04:00.000-08:002008-11-26T05:05:04.010-08:00COMEÇA AGORA A ERA PÓS-RACIALArão Dava<br /><br />Começa agora a era pós-racial?A vitória de Obama deve ser percebida como um sinal, um marco histórico de que realmente é possivel o sonho de Martin Luther King. Naõ significa isto dizer que a partir de 4 de Novembro brancos e pretos serão iguais, e que a discrminação racial acabou, mas significa uma clara demostração de que os pretos tem as mesmas ocapacidades que os brancos.O que mais me marcou no discurso de Obama foi a afirmação de que a sua vitória ..." É a resposta de jovens e idosos, ricos e pobres, democratas e republicanos, negros, brancos, hispânicos, asiáticos, índios, gays, heterossexuais, deficientes e não-deficientes. Americanos que enviaram uma mensagem ao mundo de que nós nunca fomos somente uma coleção de indivíduos ou uma coleção de Estados vermelhos e azuis. Nós somos, e sempre seremos, os Estados Unidos da América."- Obama 4.11.2008.Esta era uma resposta ao sonho de Martin Luther king em 1963, ..."Eu digo a você hoje, meus amigos, que embora nós enfrentemos as dificuldades de hoje e amanhã. Eu ainda tenho um sonho. É um sonho profundamente enraizado no sonho americano.(. ..)E quando isto acontecer, quando nós permitimos o sino da liberdade soar, quando nós deixarmos ele soar em toda moradia e todo vilarejo, em todo estado e em toda cidade, nós poderemos acelerar aquele dia quando todas as crianças de Deus, homens pretos e homens brancos, judeus e gentios, protestantes e católicos, poderão unir mãos e cantar nas palavras do velho spiritual negro:"Livre afinal, livre afinal." Martin Luther King 28/08/1963.Confesso que ao ouvir o discursos de Obama também me emocionei. Aconteça o que acontecer, Obama escreveu o nome na história.Agora vamos gerir as expectativas. Agora começa o trabalho.Obama herda um pais na pior situação dos últimos 70 anos, um pais envolvidos em guerras e conflitos diplomáticos prestes a explodir.O meu sonho é que qualquer fracasso de Obama não seja percebido como prova da incapacidade dos negros.O meu sonho é que Obama prove ao mundo que o negro também pode governar.O meu sonho é que a governação de Obama desvitue a teoria de que os governantes africano são prova de incapacidade de incapacidade rácica de governar.Para quem não teve acesso junto estão os discursos Obama e de Martin L. King - encontro neles uma perfeita harmonia.Estes discursos transcendem o racismo e navegam no conceito humanismo. Yes we canNDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-43359602483920800672008-11-26T04:28:00.000-08:002008-11-26T04:33:48.386-08:00OS PROCESSO DE DEMOCRATIZAÇÃO EM AFRICA : QUE CONTRIBUTOS PARA SEGURANÇA HUMANA - O CASO DE MOÇAMBIQUE IArão Dava<br /><br />1.INTRODUÇÃO<br /><br />As independências em África ocorreram numa altura em que o mundo era dominado pelo sistema bipolar que o dividia política, económica, ideológica e militarmente em duas partes:<br /><br />- Ocidente, capitalista e democrático liberal – liderado pelos EUA e<br />- Leste, socialista e democracias populares – liderado pela URSS.<br /><br />Perante este cenário aos países do resto do mundo restava apenas uma destas duas opções, politico-economica, ideologica e militar.<br /><br />Em África, o efeito da bipolaridade consistiu na luta pelo estabelecimento e expansão de redes de segurança baseadas em aliados estratégicos independentemente do tipo de regime, ou de governo. Como resultado, muitas vezes os regimes africanos, inconscientes da complexidade do problema em que voluntária ou involuntariamente, se envolviam, acabavam por tomar partido de um dos lados no quadro da Guerra Fria<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">[1]</a>, sendo deste modo classificados como pró ocidentais ou pró Leste (Zacarias, 1991:143).<br /><br />Ao adoptar estratégias de desenvolvimento de orientação socialista, logo apôs a sua independência, em 1975, Moçambique criou simultaneamente vulnerabilidade internas devido à sua política de governação baseada na “ditadura do partido único” e tornou-se alvo de ameaças dos regimes minoritários da região. Efectivamente, poucos anos depois da independência, a estratégia adoptada tornou-se pesadelo, porque, por um lado, não consegue responder à expectativa e à euforia populares em relação ao bem estar resultante da independência e, por outro lado, o Estado é alvo da desestabilização, primeiro pelo regime de Ian Smith, da então Rodésia do Sul e depois do apartheid da África do Sul.<br /><br />A “ditadura do sistema político-económico” fez do Estado um factor de insegurança para o indivíduo, facto que veio a ser agravado pela guerra de desestabilização da RENAMO, resultando assim no medo e nas carências generalizada . Refira-se que o contexto da Guerra Fria contribuiu substancialmente para a adopção do sistema político de orientação socialista em Moçambique e para a desestabilização promovida pelo regime do apartheid da África do Sul.<br /><br />Com o colapso do bloco leste nos finais da década de 80, a Guerra Fria chega ao fim, dando espaço para a expansão das democracias liberais (como a única ideologia) e para a emergência do new security thinking<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2">[2]</a>.<br /><br />No âmbito deste novo contexto internacional e regional, mesmo nos finais da década de 80, Moçambique começa a sofrer transformações económicas e políticas num processo que culmina com a adopção de uma constituição mais liberal em 1990, o que possibilitou o fim da Guerra de desestabilização, com a assinatura do Acordo Geral de Paz em 1992, e conduziu o país às primeiras eleições Gerais, em 1994, iniciando assim o processo de democratização e por conseguinte aumentando a Segurança Humana.<br /><br />Para um país, saído de um sistema político-económico centralizado de orientação socialista e da guerra de desestabilização, que durante 16 anos provocou carência e medo generalizados – uma dimensões importante de insegurança humana, o processo de democratização é visto como garante do bem estar político, económico, social e cultural do indivíduo, isto é como factor de segurança humana.<br /><br />1.1 – PROBLEMATIZAÇÃO DO TEMA<br /><br />Ao alcançarem as suas independência os Estados africanos foram profundamente marcados pelo ambiente internacional influenciado pela Guerra Fria. No contexto da Guerra Fria e ao ritmo das suas tendências hegemónicas, as duas superpotências foram dando assistência a regimes ou movimentos políticos considerados como aliados, num apoio que se traduzia na provisão desregrada de armas, não tendo em consideração a fragilidade ou a capacidade de sustentação de tais regimes ou movimentos. Esta assistência resultou, na criação de um ambiente propício para o surgimento e manutenção de regimes autoritários, autocráticos e militarizados e de movimentos rebeldes que lutam pela desestabilização dos governos e/ou pelo acesso ao poder. Este facto produziu implicações para a segurança humana devido em muitos casos a eclosão de golpes de estado, conflitos do tipo proxy wars, as privações políticas económicas e sociais que provocaram um clima de insegurança humana generalizada em todo o continente.<br /><br />Entretanto, na opinião de Picasso (2003: 67), com o fim da Guerra Fria., e queda de URSS, as democracias liberais impõem um paradigma político, económico e social a ser seguido por todos os Estados e regimes como estratégias para o alcance do desenvolvimento e da paz social, isto é da Segurança Humana. De facto, nos países africanos a Democracia e vista como meio para o alcance do desenvolvimento económico e, consequentemente para a melhoria da vida das pessoas, na medida em que, pretensamente, um governo democrático, está mais vocacionado para procurar o bem comum da sociedade, isto é a Segurança Humana (ibid.).<br /><br />Volvidos mais de quinze anos depois dos inicio do processo de democratização em África, importa perceber que contributos este processo está a dar para a segurança humana, sabido que os velhos actores ( partidos de vanguarda e ex-rebeldes ) e novos actores ( novos partidos, movimentos sociais, meios de comunicação ) e novos mas velhos problemas ( pobreza, fome, HIV-SIDA, corrupção<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3">[3]</a>, analfabetismo, tribalismos, criminalidade) interagem entre si neste novo contexto.<br /><br />1.2 - OBJECTIVOS<br /><br />O presente trabalho é desenvolvido com o objectivo geral de:<br /><br />- Perceber o processo de democratização e o seu contributo para a segurança humana nos Estados africanos tendo Moçambique como caso impirico.<br /><br />Sob ponto de vista específico pretendemos:<br />1. Identificar os factores de insegurança humana em Moçambique<br />2. Averiguar ate que ponto o processo de democratização contribui para a Segurança Humana em Moçambique.<br />3. Identificar os desafios e os dilemas do processo de democratização para uma maior segurança humana em Moçambique.<br /><br />Provocar um debate, fundamentalmente sobre a segurança humana e sobre a democratização.<br /><br />1.3 – HIPÓTESE<br /><br />Como hipótese de trabalho temos as seguintes:<br /><br />1. – A Guerra Fria e o contexto geopolítico regional, as opções política do estado e o conflito de desestabilização tiveram reflexos negativos na segurança humana em Moçambique;<br />2. – O Fim da Guerra Fria e o processo de democratização contribuíram para a remoção de factores internos e externos da insegurança humana em Moçambique.<br />3. – A consolidação da democracia é uma condição relevante para a promoção da segurança humana em Moçambique.<br /><br />1.4 - QUESTÕES DE PESQUISA<br /><br />Tendo em conta o caso alguns pontos de partida como :<br /><br />1. Que factores terão contribuído para a insegurança humana em Moçambique<br />2. Que factores podem levar a segurança humana em Moçambique<br />3. Que contributo é que o processo de democratização pode dar à segurança humana em Moçambique<br /><br />1.5 - METODOLOGIA E TECNICAS UTILIZADAS<br /><br />Para a realização do presente trabalho recorremos aos métodos histórico e comparativo.<br /><br />O Histórico, que nos possibilita perceber, por um lado, as condições históricas que levaram o país a uma situação de insegurança generalizada, e por outro lado, o processo e os desafios actuais da democratização.<br /><br />O comparativo permite nos por um lado, fazer uma comparação temporal, isto é antes e depois da Guerra Fria e por outro lado entre Moçambique e os outros países africanos.<br /><br />As técnicas usadas são: a documental e a entrevista.<br />A Documental, que consiste na consulta de obras e documentos relevantes seja nas bibliotecas ou na Internet.<br />A Entrevista semi-estruturada, que consiste na conversa verbal com individualidades que tenham conhecimentos relevantes sobre o tema do trabalho e permite a flexibilidade e adaptação aos momentos e situações.<br /><br />O presente trabalho não é um documento acabado´. É apenas uma provocação para um debate.<br /><br /><br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">[1]</a> A Guerra-fria dividiu o mundo em dois blocos político militares e económicos antagónicos liderados por duas super potencias mundiais designadamente, os Estados Unidos da América e a União Soviética.<br /><br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2">[2]</a> Que na abordagem de segurança para além dos aspectos "Estato-Centricos" e militares, abrange novos aspectos como a fome, a seca, as pestes, liberdades e direitos politicos, as epidemias, a economia, o ambiente, tipo de governo, etc.<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3">[3]</a> Quando falamos da corrupção estamos a usar o conceito de Nye (1978) segundo o qual corrupção é um comportamento desviante dos deveres formais e públicos para obtenção de ganhos privados ou sejam pessoais, familiares ou de grupo privado.NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-77299365939635326552008-11-26T04:25:00.000-08:002008-11-26T04:27:32.708-08:00CAPITULO – 1: ABORDAGEM TEÓRICO-CONCEPTUAL DO TEMAOs processos de democratização em Africa : Que contributos para a segurança humana - o caso de Moçambique<br /><br />Arão Dava<br /><br />1.1 - O PONTO DE PARTIDA: AS TEORIAS DAS RELAÇÕES INTERNACIONAIS EM CONFRONTO<br /><br />A disciplina de Relações Internacionais envolve o estudo de um grande número de factos sobre o sistema internacional. Entretanto estes factos, são melhor percebidos somente, “quando existe um enquadramento onde coloca-los, e é a teoria que proporciona tal enquadramento” (Woods, 1996: 9). <br /><br />Segundo Andrew Ross (1999 :45) <a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">[1]</a> , a teoria é um requisito prévio para a acção. Quer de maneira consciente quer inconsciente, são as ideias a respeito da forma em que funciona o mundo e as expectativas sobre os resultados que se buscam, que modelam as acções. A acção efectiva requer entendimento e não há entendimento sem teoria. A teoria está incorporada nos conceitos, nos enquadramentos analíticos e nos enfoques utilizados pelos estrategas e planificadores de forças. As decisões que tomam tem sua base em hipóteses sobre acontecimentos que requerem resposta, aos problemas para os quais se deve estar preparado e a medida em que pode ser moldado o mundo do futuro.<br /><br />As ideias sobre as quais se baseiam as acções dos decision-makers responsáveis pelas interacções dos seus países com o resto do mundo, tem suas raízes em tradições intelectuais algumas vezes opostas que dão sustento às análises das questões de política, economia e segurança internacional.<br /><br />Nas Relações Internacionais a procura do melhor campo teórico conceptual com vista a obtenção das mais confiáveis análises da realidade tem ocasionado grande disputa intelectual. Inúmeras são as propostas teóricas que vem sendo apresentadas, que se torna difícil classifica-las. A maneira que os académicos dedicados ao estudo da evolução teórica das Relações internacionais encontram para organizar esse campo teórico foi utilizar o conceito paradigma<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2">[2]</a>, tomando-o de empréstimo ao filósofo, Thomas Khun (1982).<br /><br />De acordo com Ross (1999:46) o conceito de paradigma tem servido para classificar as teorias segundo o seu vínculo a determinados modos de perceber a dinâmica do meio internacional. Este conceito não é contudo suficiente para resolver o problema de “mapeamento” do campo teórico de relações internacionais.<br /><br />Se, por um lado, o conceito de paradigma ajuda, por outro dificulta uma vez que há alguma divergência quanto aos próprios paradigmas. Só para citar alguns exemplos dessas divergências, Ole Waever<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3">[3]</a> considera a existência de três paradigmas: Realismo, Pluralismo ou interdependência e Marxismo ou Radicalismo enquanto que Graham Evans e Jeffrey Newman<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4">[4]</a> consideram sete paradigmas, designadamente, Realismo, Behaviorismo, Neo-liberalismo; Teoria do Sistema Mundial; Teoria Crítica Pós Modernista, Neo-realismo e Neo-liberalismo (Halliday, 1999).<br /><br />Uma vez que dentre as várias classificações alguns paradigmas se sobrepõem como consensuais poderemos considerar que o estudo das Relações Internacionais fundamenta-se em três principais paradigmas, nomeadamente: Realismo, Pluralismo ou Liberalismo e Estruturalismo, Globalismo ou Marxismo.<br /><br />1.2 – A PAZ E SEGURANÇA NAS RELAÇÕES INTERNACIONAIS: O DEBATE TEÓRICO<br /><br />1.2.1 - O REALISMO<br /><br />O Realismo moderno surge em reacção ao Idealismo<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5">[5]</a>. Tal como os Idealistas, os Realistas afirmam que a Guerra é o principal factor de insegurança internacional. Para os Realistas a paz significa “ ausência da guerra”, isto é, segurança face a ameaça representada pelo factor guerra. Assim o Estado alcança a paz se tiver poder suficiente para se impor perante os outros, num cenário que leva ao equilíbrio de poder (David, 2000:33).<br /><br />Para Fred Halliday a primeira grande obra do Realismo moderno foi escrita pelo académico E.H.Carr e intitula-se “ A Crise dos 20 anos” referindo-se ao período entre as duas Guerras Mundiais. Tal como afirma este autor, Carr era da opinião que a II Guerra Mundial bem como todas as Guerras só poderiam ter sido evitadas se as democracias ocidentais estivessem dispostas a se contrapor militarmente ao expansionismo dos Estados fascistas (Halliday, 1999:231). Halliday, acrescenta que a Carr juntaram-se vários académicos nos Estados Unidos, tal é o caso de Hans Morganthau (tido como pai do realismo), Henry Kinssiger e Keneth Waltz<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6">[6]</a> e Martin Wight.<br /><br />De acordo com David (2000: 33), os Realistas defendem que o mecanismo de Balanço de Poder é fundamental para a Paz e Segurança Internacionais e para funcionamento e sobrevivência do Sistema Internacional enquanto sistema composto por Estados Independentes. Para eles, só através do funcionamento deste mecanismo é que se poderia evitar o desenvolvimento de um Estado império Mundial.<br /><br />A validade dos pressupostos do paradigma realista parecia confirmar-se com as mudanças ocorridas após a Segunda Guerra Mundial. Com efeito,<br /><br /> “a formação de dois blocos de poder antagónicos e a rivalidade entre as duas super potências hegemónicas (União Soviética e Estados Unidos da América) nos seus respectivos blocos, ameaçando a qualquer momento iniciar uma Guerra atómica não davam qualquer margem de dúvida de que as possibilidades de se alcançar a paz mundial tal como pensavam os Idealistas era impossível e não passava de uma ilusão” (Ross op. cit.).<br /><br />Este paradigma tem como premissas básicas as seguintes:<br /><br />1. Os Estados são soberanos, independentes e não reconhecem uma autoridade superior,<br />2. Já que são soberanos operam num sistema autárquico,<br />3. Já que o sistema e anárquico prevalece o sentimento de insegurança<br />4. Dada a competição entre os Estados e a sua busca por segurança, isso resulta tão-somente em sentimentos de insegurança por parte de outros Estados, e portanto, a Guerra é uma característica inevitável do Sistema Internacional,<br />5. Dada a existência de conflito no Sistema Internacional, o poderio militar é um pré-requisito para a sobrevivência de um Estado,<br />6. A moralidade não desempenha nenhum papel no sistema internacional, o objectivo principal de um governo é assegurar a sobrevivência do Estado que governa.<br /><br />Em resumo, o realismo sustenta que a função de um Estado é buscar segurança por meio do uso da força, para o que deve ter poder e recursos militares, seja para se sentir seguro seja para a defesa. Só desta forma mantém a paz.<br /><br />1.2.2 – O PLURALISMO<br /><br />O Pluralismo tem origem especialmente nos Estados Unidos da América e na Europa Ocidental, na década de 70 e surge como uma corrente intelectual que desafia o Realismo impondo-se como alternativa de análise às questões internacionais por parte dos académicos da disciplina (Halliday, 1999:28).<br /><br />Segundo Ross (2000) esta forma de pensar remonta de épocas muito anteriores a década de 70 do século passado. De facto pensadores clássicos como Platão (1993), Aristóteles (1985), Grotius (1925 [1625]), Locke (1998 [1690]), Montesquieu (1993) Rousseau (1983), Kant(s.d), Benthan (1979) desenvolveram as bases do pensamento pluralista. Como defensores deste paradigma na área económica destacam-se nomes de pensadores como Adam Smith (1983) e David Ricardo (1988). Entre os contemporâneos deste paradigma encontramos Grahan Allisson (1999), Francis Fukuyama [(1989)(1992)], Robert Keohane (1986) Joseph Nye (1990) e John Ruggie (1996).<br /><br />Apesar do paradigma Realista manter-se dominante, no início da década de 70 do Século passado, os académicos Americanos Robert Keohane e Joseph Nye (1971 e 1977<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7">[7]</a> citados por Halliday, 1999) trabalharam conjuntamente na Universidade de Havard, desenvolvendo duas importantes teorias. A teoria da Interdependência e do Transnacionalismo que conjuntamente perfazem as bases do Paradigma Pluralista, como um quadro alternativo para os académicos da disciplina (Halliday, 1999:28)<br /><br />As reflexões destes dois autores tinham como base empírica, algumas mudanças significativas que ocorriam no sistema internacional, dentre as quais, o abandono do padrão ouro de Bretton Woods; o primeiro choque de petróleo; o fim da Guerra do Vietname; e o início das tensões comerciais entre os Estados Unidos e o Japão. Devido ao impacto destes acontecimentos detonadores da perda relativa de poder por parte dos Estados Unidos e simultaneamente a importância crescente dos factores económicos nas Relações Internacionais, eles concluem que a economia internacional havia evoluído a tal ponto que o poder era exercido também mediante mecanismos financeiros e comerciais (Ibid.)<br /><br />Os principais pressupostos do pluralismo são as seguintes :<br />1 Ainda que no sistema internacional não exista uma autoridade política que imponha ordem, resolva conflitos e exija decisões é possível a ordem uma vez que os Estados cooperam dentro de tal anarquia.<br />2 O Estado está perdendo a sua posição dominante no Sistema Internacional a favor de outros agentes não estatais.<br />3 O poder militar enquanto instrumento de política externa está perdendo lugar a favor de outros económicos.<br />4 A linha divisória entre a esfera doméstica e a esfera internacional está desaparecendo, isto é, o Estado no mundo contemporânea está perdendo o seu controlo absoluto sobre assuntos internos, para além de que na esfera externa vem perdendo a sua autonomia (Halliday, 1999:59).<br /><br />O pluralismo tem em conta a interacção de vários actores no processo de tomada de decisão. Esta interacção só é possível em Estados democráticos onde diferentes actores sociais e económicos (os partidos políticos, as classes, os grupos de interesse, os meios e os indivíduos) procuram influir sobre as decisões do governo que se baseiam em interesses de vários actores ou seja em vários assuntos estratégicos intra-nacionais diferentes, isto é, as decisões são tomadas mediante negociações políticas (ibid. :61).<br /><br />Ross (op.cit) acrescenta que nos Estados Democráticos os actores se enfrentam, concorrem, negoceiam e transigem entre si e com actores do governo procurando incidir sobre as acções do governo.<br /><br />O pluralismo reconhece que actores públicos e privados – organizações, burocracia e funcionários governamentais e partidos políticos, classes, grupos de interesses, os meios e os indivíduos — têm seus próprios interesses e objectivos. Estes interesses e objectivos por vezes entram em conflito e são com frequência contraditórios. Na verdade nem o Estado nem o governo são entidades abstractas, o governo é formado por organizações burocracia, legislaturas comissões legislativas e indivíduos. Os Estados quando actuam reflectem o interesse das organizações, as burocracias e os indivíduos.<br /><br />As democracias são igualmente apontadas como fonte de paz. De acordo com Baylis e Smith, os valores democráticos, embora não eliminem totalmente as fontes de guerra contribuem para a construção e manutenção de um mundo mais pacífico, isto porque, a democracia é a única forma de organização política que garante o respeito pela dignidade humana; que permite o progresso acelerado e global do povo que consente a alegria de viver em sociedade, sendo que o único e insubstituível guardião da democracia é o povo que exige os factos (Baylis e Smith, 2001:262-263).<br /><br />A democracia repousa na igualdade e na liberdade de todos os cidadãos. Uma liberdade mais ampla é garantida nos regimes democráticos que nos regimes não democráticos. Para os pluralistas o Estado democrático é aquele que cultiva ideais liberais, onde o liberalismo é a ideologia dominante e os cidadãos tem influência sobre o processo de tomada de decisões, particularmente as decisões sobre a guerra ( Owen, 1998:137-151).<br /><br />Deste modo no quadro do pluralismo (liberalismo) e para sustentarmos a abordagem em torno do tema “ O processo de democratização como contributo para a segurança humana” iremos cruzar as teorias da Paz Democrática e da Privação Relativa de Ted Gurr (1970) e das Necessidades Humanas de John Burton (1990).<br /><br />Por um lado, para sustentarmos a nossa abordagem de Democratização iremos nos socorrer da Teoria da Paz Democrática defende os seguintes pressupostos :<br /><br />1 - A propagação de valores democráticos reduz a propensão de conflitos e favorece a uma solução pacífica de diferendos, devidos a predominância de uma cultura liberal de compromisso. Assim, apontam para a necessidade de promoção de democracias como forma de garantir a paz e segurança dos Estados. ( David, 2000: 36-37);<br />2 - Consideram que as democracias não lutam entre si;<br />3 - Para além do diálogo, as democracias não tem outros meios de resolver conflitos;<br />4 - Afirmam que existem constrangimentos normativos e estruturais que desencorajam a luta entre democracias (Owen, 1998:40-145)<br /><br />Por outro lado para sustentar a nossa abordagem de segurança humana iremos recorrer as teorias de Privação Relativa de Ted Gurr (1970) e das Necessidades Humanas de John Burton (1990).<br /><br />A Teoria da Privação Relativa - Na opinião de Leon Festinger a privação relativa constitui o fosso entre, por um lado, o que consideramos como sendo nosso direito ter, fazer, ser e por outro lado a nossa percepção sobre aquilo que outras pessoas, grupos de pessoas ou instituições nos permitem em termos de recursos e capacidades para satisfazer aquilo que assumimos como sendo nosso direito (Festinger, 1962 :262)<br /><br />Assim a privação relativa consiste numa discrepância entre expectativas do homem e as suas capacidades. As expectativas são condições de vida a que as pessoas pensam ter direito. As capacidades são bens e condições que as pessoas pensam terem a capacidade de poder atingir e manter, dados os meios disponíveis para eles (Gurr, 1970 :13).<br /><br />Anders Nilsson distingue três aspectos fundamentais da teoria da Privação Relativa de Ted Gurr, que importa reter :<br /><br />- A privação relativa lida com a percepção das pessoas em relação a sua própria situação, suas expectativas, e capacidades. Por esta razão, a privação relativa tem como seu ponto de referência as expectativas, as quais não é fácil descrever em termos quantitativos, particularmente no que toca a questões imateriais, como crenças, ideologia, afirmação social, cultural, religiosa, etc. Nem a percepção da capacidade permitida é fácil de identificar quantitativamente e menos ainda a dimensão da dissonância, ou privação relativa.<br />- Quando falamos de privação relativa é pertinente enfatizar a relatividade embuida no conceito. Assim notaremos que a privação relativa em relação a expectativa materiais também pode ser intensa para pessoas que vivem um nível material relativamente alto, completamente desligadas de quaisquer necessidades provenientes da proximidade a pobreza absoluta. Deste modo poderemos facilmente aplicar o conceito na analise da frustração de grupos de elite na sociedade.<br />- As expectativas referem-se a posições justificáveis, no sentido de que as pessoas acreditam que tem direito a ver realizadas as suas expectativas independentemente das suas posições sociais, sejam elas pobres, camponeses, ou elites alienadas. De notar que não é a falta absoluta de satisfação das expectativas que é o problema, mas o sentimento de não ser permitido recurso ou possibilidade para a satisfação (Nilsson, 172-173)<br /><br />Com esta teoria, Gurr criou a possibilidade para a percepção fundamental da potencialidade da violência colectiva. Aliás, na sua opinião, “ o sentimento provocado pelo percepção de privação relativa é a conclusão básica, instigando os participantes da violência colectiva” (Gurr, 1970:13).<br /><br />Teoria das necessidades básicas - Na opinião John Burton qualquer resolução de conflitos deve basear-se naquilo que, terá contribuído para o seu surgimento de modo a evitar que o conflito ressuscite e a impedir o surgimento de novos conflitos a partir das circunstancia inalteradas. Assim Burton identificou a teoria das Necessidades Humanas que tem os seus alicerces na suposição de que os seres humanos tem certas necessidades básicas que requerem satisfação, e que não podem ser suprimidas nem pela repressão nem pela socialização (Burton 1990:36).<br /><br />De acordo com Burton (ibid:37) nenhuma socialização pode ser mantida por muito tempo forçando as pessoas a um comportamento que perverte ou destroi a sua identidade e os priva das suas necessidades básicas, que baseiam-se fundamentalmente em três categorias : valores, interesses e necessidades :<br /><br /> - Necessidades – As necessidades humanas não são negociáveis e não podem ser separadas da existência humana. Ás necessidades, constituem o conjunto de valores imprescindíveis para a sobrevivência das pessoas e unidades políticas, (meio ambiente, bem-estar social, alimentação, vestuário, etc.). Na perspectiva de conflito, as necessidades são satisfeitas em função dos meios disponíveis. Quando não são satisfeitas dentro do quadro normativo social, há propensão para os indivíduos agirem contrariamente a lei, ou seja cometerem crimes que podem ser reprimidos pelas instituições de direito.<br />As necessidades não são negociáveis, uma vez que são inerentes a sobrevivência e ao desenvolvimento das pessoas ou entidades públicas ou privadas. A sua não satisfação conduz a comportamentos não compatíveis os sistemas sociais vigentes.<br />- Valores – São as ideias, hábitos, costumes e crenças que caracterizam uma determinada comunidade social. Os valores podem ser linguisticos, religiosos, de classe, étnicas, entre outras que distinguem cultura e grupos de identidade. Os valores distinguem-se das necessidades pelo facto de estas serem universais e primordiais (talvez genéticas). Em situações de opressão, discriminação, privação e isolamento, a defesa de valores é importante para a identidade e segurança pessoal. Neste sentido eles afectas as necessidades e podem ser confundidos com elas. A preservação de valores é a razão de comportamentos defensivos e agressivos. A persecução das necessidades individuais é a razão para a formação de grupos de identidade através dos quais os indivíduos operam quando perseguem um maior ego, bem como segurança e identidade cultural.<br />- Interesses - Referem-se a tudo aquilo que se afigura como sendo de extrema importância para a sobrevivência de uma determinada unidade política ou para os indivíduos. Eles são de caracter transitório, constituem aspirações ocupacionais, sociais, políticas ou económicas de um indivíduo ou grupo de indivíduos. Os interesses são passíveis de alteração ao longo do tempo, são mais evidentes em relação a bens materiais e são negociáveis. Quanto a tipologia, os interesses podem individuais, colectivos, de grupos sociais, universais - humanitários e nacionais. Podem ainda dividir-se quanto a importância em vitais, secundários; quanto a duração em permanentes e variáveis e quanto ao caracter em gerais, específicos, comuns, comuns, complementares e conflituosos (Burton, 1990, 36-41).<br /><br />Na opinião de Nilsson, a diferença entre as três categorias é que elas tem categorias e estabilidade diferentes. Interesses é uma categoria transitória, que muda com frequência. Valores estão ligados a cultura, sendo por isso mais estáveis ao longo do tempo. As necessidades humanas são consideradas universais, sem limites no tempo e no espaço, e constituindo uma parte intrínseca da natureza humana (Nilsson, 246)<br /><br />O presente trabalho terá como suporte o paradigma pluralista. Para fundamentar os nossos argumentos em relação ao processo de democratização iremos recorrer as Teoria da Paz democrática que estabelece uma relação de causa efeito entre a democracia e a segurança, defendendo que quanto mais democrático for o mundo mais pacífico e seguro será, sendo que o mesmo se aplica em relação aos Estados internamente. Por outro lado, as nossas argumentações em relação a segurança e insegurança serão fundamentadas pelas teorias da Privação Relativa e das Necessidades Humanas básicas.<br /><br />1.3 – ENQUADRAMENTO DOS CONCEITOS CHAVE NO CONTEXTO AFRICANO (MOÇAMBICANO)<br /><br />1.3.1 – A DEMOCRACIA<br /><br />O conceito Democracia é dinâmico e tem estado a evoluir ao longo dos tempos. Por exemplo, para os atenienses “democracia” referia-se a certos tipos de igualdades vistas como características desejáveis para o seu sistema político: a igualdade de todos os cidadãos, a igualdade de direitos para falar na Assembleia Directiva que governa e a igualdade perante a lei. A democracia no sentido etimológico da palavra significa “o governo do povo, o governo da maioria” (Rosenfield, 1984:7).<br /><br />De acordo com Mark de Tollenaere (2002:227-251), nos últimos 50 anos desenvolveu-se um grande número de definições e teorias sobre democracia, podendo ser agrupadas em três categorias :<br /><br />Primeiro, a categoria dos minimalistas que consideram que é suficiente que um país tenha eleições competitivas e regulares para ser chamado democracia, (incluímos aqui Schupenter e Huntigton). Só para citar um exemplo, Schumpeter (1950<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8">[8]</a>, citado por Lalá e Ostheimer, 2004:11) considera que as eleições processuais são a essência do sistema democrático.<br /><br />Segundo, a categoria dos que incluem as definições técnico institucionais de democracia que exigem muito mais do que a mera realização de eleições regulares competitivas. Também consideram a existência de instituições que garantam ao cidadão, os direitos e liberdades tradicionais individuais e colectivas que imponham controles múltiplos e mútuos. Nesta categoria encontramos Robert Dahl (1971)<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9">[9]</a> e Larry Diamond (1990)<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10">[10]</a> (Lijphart, 1998:5).<br /><br />Só para ilustrar esta categoria tomemos o exemplo de Dahl (citado por Lijphart : ibid.) que considera que uma democracia razoavelmente receptiva pode existir se pelo menos estiverem presentes oito garantias institucionais : <br /><br />1. - liberdade de formar e associar-se em organizações;<br />2. - liberdade de expressão;<br />3. - direito de voto;<br />4. - acesso a cargos públicos;<br />5. - direito dos líderes políticos competirem para os votos, isto é, a possibilidade de líderes políticos competirem através da votação;<br />6. - fontes alternativas de informação;<br />7. - eleições livres e justas;<br />8. - instituições para fazer as políticas do governo dependerem de votos e outras expressões de preferência.<br /><br />A terceira categoria é dos que fazem uma aproximação mais filosófica onde a democracia é considerada uma sensibilidade comportamental, sem no entanto haver prescrição dos atributos institucionais fundamentais para a democracia.<br /><br />Brazão Mazula (1995:73) é um exemplo ao considerar que a democracia deve proporcionar uma capacidade e oportunidade de convivência social política e económica, na diversidade de ideias, culturas e opiniões para um desenvolvimento real em cada tempo e lugar.<br /><br />A esta última categoria incluímos igualmente Baptista Lundin (1996: 107-169), que considera que o conceito Democracia e a sua prática é um produto histórico que segue normas e regras diferentes em universos socioculturais diferentes, o que confere quase sempre, o mesmo aspecto de relativismo sócio cultural da democracia.<br /><br />Para a nossa abordagem iremos recorrer a terceira das três categoria de democracia propostas por Mark de Tollenaere uma vez que esta nos permitirá melhor definir democracia no contexto moçambicano.<br /><br />Assim sendo, tendo em conta o processo histórico, a democracia para a presente abordagem, irá significar, o respeito pelas normas e valores democráticos – o que requer a aceitação de que todos os jogadores aderirão as mesmas regras, que a responsabilidade não é encarada como um fardo, mas um dever, e que a política não se exerce apenas sobre o poder, mas também sobre boas gestão de bens públicos. Que a política é essencialmente sobre convicções genuínas e não apenas palavreado indiferente aos princípios democráticos. (Tollenaere ,2002:227-251).<br /><br />1.3.2 - DEMOCRATIZAÇÃO<br /><br />O Dicionário de Ciências Sociais (1986:318) refere que a democratização é a superação das tensões e dos conflitos políticos, económicos e sociais mediante a máxima participação autónoma do povo em todas as actividades da comunidade política.<br /><br />Para Pasquino, (2002: 320) a democratização resulta da conjugação de dois processos: <br /><br />1. A liberalização – que consiste no processo de alargamento das oportunidades de contestação que conduz os regimes fechados na direcção das oligarquias concorrenciais e<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11">[11]</a>,<br />2. A inclusão – que consiste no processo de alargamento das actividades de participação, que origina regimes nos quais todos ou quase todos tem a possibilidade de participar, mas que não são necessariamente concorrenciais, já que o poder continuara a ser exercido pela elite dominante.<br /><br />Assim podemos aferir que a democratização é um processo que, em geral se refere a transição de qualquer outro regime para o democrático. De acordo com Lalá e Ostheimer (2004:49) na conceitualização de democracia e na distinção entre uma democracia eleitoral (caso do Zimbabwe) e uma democracia liberal (caso da França), é necessário que se realize, em primeira instancia, a distinção entre o processo de transição do autoritarismo para a instalação de um novo governo democraticamente eleito, e posteriormente o da transição para uma democracia consolidada e institucionalizada.<br /><br />A democratização como processo, começa pela remoção dos factores inibidores da democracia, passa pela realização de eleições (democracia eleitoral) e caminha para a consolidação (democracia consolidada).<br /><br />Segundo Lalá e Ostheimer (2004:49), a consolidação democrática, refere-se ao seu carácter processual e qualitativo, no sentido do alargamento e aprofundamento das estruturas democráticas e mudança de uma mera democracia eleitoral para uma democracia liberal.<br /><br />Alias, Baptista Lundin (1996:121) afirma que os sistemas políticos que hoje existem no mundo aceites como democráticos, mostram claramente pela sua diversidade a validade de que a democracia como um produto histórico evolui consoante as condições dos espaços em que é implementada, atendendo as particularidades sóciohistóricas desses espaços.<br /><br />Raymond D. Gastil (1987)<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12">[12]</a> citado por Sitoe (2006:161) afirma que nas actuais circunstâncias históricas ao contrário do período anterior a segunda metade do Século XX, a implantação da democracia pluripartidária constitui factor base para que o país caminhe rumo a boa governação e ao desenvolvimento.<br /><br />Por outro lado, Leftwich (1996)<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13">[13]</a> citado por Weimer (2002:80) afirma que existe uma correlação significativa entre um Estado Democrático orientado para o desenvolvimento e o próprio desenvolvimento sócio-económico quantitativo e qualitativo neste Estado. Por outras palavras, a democracia é condições sine qua non para o desenvolvimento, entendido como redução da pobreza e da exclusão sócio económico nas várias formas da Segurança Humana.<br /><br />Tendo em conta os pensamentos de Gastil e de Leftwich poderemos afirmar que a democratização de Moçambique deverá ter em vista o percurso histórico com o objectivo de garantir a manutenção da paz e a liberdade do medo e das carências (RDH, 1994:24). Aliás Sitoe (2006:155-156) afirma que Moçambique é um caso paradigmático onde esta crença (ligação causa efeito democracia segurança humana) foi difundida tanto por actores externos como pelos próprios moçambicanos. Só para citar um exemplo, ( Lalá e Ostheimer: 2003:1) consideram que em Moçambique, como na maior parte dos países africanos, as populações associam a democratização a esperança de ver as suas condições de vida melhoradas.<br /><br />Para o presente trabalho, define-se democratização como um processo que leva a transição de qualquer regime para o democrático, que mais do que a mera realização de eleições regulares competitivas, caminha para a construção de instituições que garantam ao cidadão, os direitos e liberdades tradicionais individuais e colectivas que imponham controles múltiplos e mútuos, e acima de tudo para uma sensibilidade comportamental, tendo em conta o contexto social, geográfico e histórico. Tal processo consiste no alargamento das oportunidades de contestação através de oligarquias concorrenciais e no alargamento das oportunidades de participação do cidadão na vida política, económica, social e cultural do Estado com o fim último de garantir a liberdade do medo e das carências, paz social efectiva e o desenvolvimento.<br /><br />1.3.3 - SEGURANÇA NACIONAL<br /><br />Tradicionalmente o conceito de Segurança sustenta-se na teoria Realista, onde o Estado e o Poder militar constituem aspectos base na abordagem de segurança, isto é, a segurança está associada a capacidade militar do Estado para poder preservar os seus valores principais contra agressões sejam elas externas ou internas.<br /><br />De acordo com Cepik a segurança é uma condição relativa de protecção na qual se é capaz de neutralizar ameaças discerníveis contra a existência de alguma coisa. As medidas de protecção devem guardar certa proporcionalidade em relação às ameaças, percebidas contra a existência, afectividade, e autonomia de quem ou do que, é protegido. Na ausência de proporcionalidade a segurança, torna-se ela, uma ameaça a afectividade, autonomia e no limite, a própria existência do objecto de protecção (Cepik 2001:3).<br /><br />Para Cepik (ibid) Segurança Nacional e “ uma condição colectiva de protecção contra os membros de uma sociedade contra ameaças plausíveis à sua sobrevivência e autonomia”. Nesse sentido o termo refere-se a uma dimensão vital da existência de sociedades complexas, delimitas por Estados Nacionais de base territorial.<br /><br />Estar seguro irá significar viver num Estado que é capaz de neutralizar ameaças vitais através da negociação, da obtenção de informação sobre capacidades e intenções, do uso de medidas extraordinárias e do leque de opções relativas ao emprego do uso de meios de força. A dupla face dessas ameaças, interna e externa, implica algum grau de complementaridade e de integração entre políticas interna e externa, de defesa e de provimento de ordem pública.<br /><br />A Segurança Nacional como uma condição relativamente desejável a ser obtida através dessas políticas públicas, fornece a principal justificativa para o exercício da soberania e do monopólio Estatal para o uso legítimo dos meios de força. Grande maioria dos ordenamentos constitucionais, reconhece como ameaças :<br /><br />1. A nível externo - a agressão militar, espionagem, operações encobertas, invasão territorial e o bloqueio económico como ameaças plausíveis e capazes de engendrar respostas dissuasórias proporcionais por parte dos Estados ameaçados.<br />2. A nível interno - os apoios internos àquelas ameaças externas, acrescidas a noção de subversão<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14">[14]</a>. Nas últimas décadas foi acrescentada uma nova categoria de ameaças transaccionais, como o crime organizado e o Narcotráfico (Cepik, 2001:4).<br /><br />É preciso reconhecer que a noção de Segurança Nacional é problemática, pois tanto o seu significado como as consequências práticas do seu uso estão longe de ser auto evidentes. Muitas vezes o facto de se recorrer frequentemente, a noção de Segurança Nacional como um princípio autoritário de justificação de práticas políticas, torna questionável a sua operacionalização num contexto democrático de governo e de resolução de conflitos nas sociedades contemporâneas.<br /><br />A segurança humana nas tradições do realismo é comumente assumida como resultante da segurança nacional. No entanto, ainda que reconheçamos que a segurança humana possa resultar da segurança nacional, defendemos para o presente trabalho que a segurança nacional passa necessariamente pela segurança humana esta que, mais do que de factores militares e de poder resulta da interacção de factores económicos, políticos, sociais e culturais.<br /><br />1.3.4. – A SEGURANÇA HUMANA<br /><br />O conceito de Segurança Nacional baseia-se na tradição realista, que se limita a segurança do Estado fundamentada em aspectos militares. Esta abordagem que vigorou durante a Guerra Fria foi criticada por perspectivas mais abrangentes e menos Estato-Cêntrica. Assim, desenvolve-se a nova abordagem de Segurança ( new security thinking) que segundo seus protagonistas, responderia, melhor aos dilemas de Segurança depois do conflito bipolar global. Com efeito, desenvolve-se o conceito de Segurança Humana que vai implicar perspectivas muito inovadoras no campo de Segurança, tais como :<br /><br />1. a ideia de ameaças não militares;<br />2. a segurança inserida dentro do contexto do desenvolvimento;<br />3. a redefinição do significado de paz;<br />4. a questão ordem político-económica doméstica como actor de segurança;.<br />5. o reconhecimento de um leque de actores não estatais ( Dopke e Maschietto, 2005:13).<br /><br />Um dos nomes a destacar, entre os inovadores do conceito de Segurança é Barry Buzan. Aliás, Buzan citado por Baylis (2001:255) considera que Segurança constitui a liberdade de ameaças e deve abarcar entre outros factores :<br /><br />1. - O bem-estar dos indivíduos e colectividades, e<br />2. - A protecção dos valores centrais para a auto-definição das comunidades.<br /><br />Buzan (1991:35) é também responsável pela introdução da noção multi-dimensional do conceito segurança identificando cinco dimensões, nomeadamente:<br /><br />1. Militar, que se refere a dois níveis de interacção, a capacidade defensiva e ofensiva do exército. É preciso reconhecer que em África a capacidade militar dos Estados é muitas vezes usada pelos governos para repelir os seus opositores;<br />2. Política, que se refere a estabilidade organizacional do Estado e das ideologias que os conferem legitimidade;<br />3. Económica, diz respeito ao acesso aos recursos, finanças e mercados necessários para prover níveis de vida aceitáveis de bem-estar e Poder do Estado;<br />4. Social, que se refere a sustentabilidade dos modelos tradicionais de costume, religião, identidade nacional; e<br />5. Ambiental, que se refere a manutenção da biosfera planetária como base essencial da qual todos os homens dependem.<br />O destaque nesta inovação vai no entanto para as Nações Unidas, que ao invés de focalizar os Estados, se centra na Segurança da população defendendo e divulgando amplamente a nível internacional o conceito de Segurança Humana (PNUD, 1994).<br /><br />O conceito de Segurança Humana surge no contexto da pesquisa para a paz, na década de 1980 após o longo período dominado pela Segurança Nacional no âmbito da Guerra Fria.<br /><br />De facto, durante muito tempo, o conceito Segurança foi construído em função dos potenciais conflitos entre Estados, sendo equiparado aos tratados para as fronteiras dos Estados e a busca de armas para se proteger. No entanto, para a maior parte das pessoas, hoje, o sentimento de insegurança resulta mais das preocupações do quotidiano do que temor de uma guerra mundial.<br /><br />As discussões sobre a Segurança nos pós Guerra Fria partiam do questionamento do conceito e dos limites estabelecidos para o seu campo de estudo. A questão central que se coloca e a quem e ao que a Segurança se refere. A evolução do termo Segurança pode ser descrita em três eixos paralelos :<br /><br />1. A definição do objecto referencial, ou seja o que deve ser protegido,<br />2. A definição do que configura ameaça e<br />3. Como Estudar Segurança<br /><br />Segundo Walker (1997:65) o fim Guerra Fria permitiu questionar a primazia do Estado em duas direcções : o que significa estar seguro e o que deve ser protegido. A simples sobrevivência física não é suficiente, dado que expressões de Poder e ameaça não decorrem apenas de questões militares. Pode-se então definir Segurança em relação a processos sociais, culturais, económicos ecológicos, assim como ameaças geopolíticas.<br /><br />Um segundo conjunto de criticas refere-se a definição de qual o objecto de segurança, buscando uma perspectiva mais inclusiva da Segurança dos indivíduos e não só dos cidadãos em particular (Walker : ibid). Deste modo, o objecto de segurança não se pode resumir ao Estado, devendo estender se a outros actores como os indivíduos, as minorias étnicas, a biosfera, a humanidade como um todo e a nação. Assim para alem das questões relacionadas a ameaça ou uso da forca entre actores políticos deverão entrar na agenda outras possíveis ameaças, como o colapso económico e financeiro, a degradação social e ambiental, o trafico de drogas, o crime organizado, as pandemias, os problemas de ordem publica, a violência interna, a corrupção, entre outros.<br /><br />A Comissão de Segurança Humana das Nações Unidas define Segurança Humana como a protecção das liberdades vitais e das pessoas expostas a ameaças e acertas situações, reforçando seus aspectos fortes e suas aspirações, alem de criar sistemas (políticos, sociais, económicos, ambientais, militares e culturais) que concedam as pessoas os elementos básicos de sobrevivência, dignidade e meios de vida<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15">[15]</a>.<br /><br />Para o PNUD (1994) a essência da Insegurança Humana é a vulnerabilidade dai que seja necessário estabelecer um vínculo estreito entre o desenvolvimento e a segurança.<br /><br />Para o Secretario Geral da Nações Unidas, Kofi Anan, :<br /><br />“a noção de Segurança Humana no seu sentido mais amplo, envolve muito mais do que ausência de conflito. Incorpora os temas direitos humanos, boa governação, acesso a educação e a saúde, alem de assegurar que cada indivíduo tenha oportunidades e a capacidade de escolha necessária para desenvolver todo o seu potencial. Cada passo nessa direcção e também passo na direcção da redução da pobreza, ao crescimento económico e a prevenção de conflitos. A liberdade de não ter de enfrentar privações e medo e a liberdade de as gerações futuras herdarem um ambiente natural e saudável são as dimensões que, de forma inter relacionada, compõem a segurança humana e a segurança nacional” .<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn16" name="_ftnref16">[16]</a><br /><br />O Relatório de Desenvolvimento Humano entende por Segurança Humana, a liberdade do medo e das carências, sendo a liberdade do medo obtida através da Paz Social efectiva e a liberdade das carências através do desenvolvimento humano (RDH, 1994:24).<br /><br />O conceito deve no entanto ser alargado de forma horizontal e vertical tal como defendem Solomon e Cilliers :<br /><br />1. O alargamento horizontal significa reconhecer que a Segurança Humana depende de factores tais como democracia, direitos humanos, desenvolvimento económico, sustentabilidade do meio ambiente e estabilidade militar.<br />2. O alargamento vertical significará reconhecer que as pessoas deveriam ser a referência primária da segurança. Neste caminho torna-se possível identificar as ameaças à segurança humana que emergem ao nível sub-nacional, nacional e transnacional (Solomon e Cilliers, 1996:6).<br /><br />Os pesquisadores canadianos Regeir e Whelan, atribuem três características à segurança humana:<br /><br />1. É um conceito “holistico” que abrange todas as variadas fontes de insegurança individual incluindo as associadas a pobreza e a violência física.<br />2. Concentram-se nos direitos humanos dos indivíduos. Na verdade enfatiza o papel do governo como fonte de insegurança para os seus cidadãos.<br />3. Valoriza a sociedade civil como actor privilegiado, reduzindo assim, de forma implícita, o papel do governo (Regeir e Whelan 2004:4)<br /><br />A declaração solene da Conferência Sobre Segurança, Estabilidade, Desenvolvimento e Cooperação (UA, 2003) mostra claramente que os lideres africanos definem a segurança como sendo a “ Protecção dos povos e suas comunidades de desastres naturais, ecológicos e degradação ambiental, pobreza e problemas económicos incluindo as condições nas quais os indivíduos possam viver plenamente”. Por outro lado, os líderes africanos incluem na definição de Segurança, a protecção dos princípios da democracia e liberdades fundamentais dos cidadãos, a liberdade do medo, a paz e a estabilidade, o direito de participar plenamente no processo de governação, no desenvolvimento e no acesso aos recursos e na satisfação das necessidades básicas. (OUA, 2000). Estes são precisamente os aspectos fundamentais da Segurança Humana.<br /><br />No contexto moçambicano a abordagem de Segurança Humana é resultado de factores históricos políticos, sociais e económicos próprios vividos no passado e no presente. A nossa abordagem è normativa caminhando no sentido de consolidação da paz efectiva e promoção de desenvolvimento.<br /> Assim entendemos por Segurança Humana, o bem estar do indivíduo, isto é a liberdade do medo e das carências. Tais liberdades passam necessariamente pela satisfação das necessidades básicas tais como, a garantia das liberdades políticas, económicas, sociais e culturas, das oportunidades de desenvolvimento e da paz tendo o indivíduo como objecto referencial.<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">[1]</a> “The Theory & Practice of International Relations: Contending Analytical Perspectives,” in Strategy and Force Planning Faculty, ed., Strategy and Force Planning, 2nd ed., Newport: Naval War College Press, 1997, pp. 45 - 62. de Andrew L. Ross retirado da pagina da internet <a href="http://www.nwc.navy.mil/nsdm/">http://www.nwc.navy.mil/nsdm/</a> da Naval War College intitulada Nacional Security Decision Making no dia 06.05.2005.<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2">[2]</a> O Paradigma, uma palavra de origem grega, paradeima constitui um conjunto de conceitos, bem estabelecidos que reputam verdades como fundamentais, constituindo padrão ou modelo.<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3">[3]</a> WAEVER Ole, The rise of the interparadigme debate in Steve Booth, Khen<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4">[4]</a> EVANS, Graham, NEWMAN, Jeffrey, The penguin Dictionary of International Relations. London. Penguin Books. 1998, p 275<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5">[5]</a> O idealismo não será desenvolvido na presente abordagem na medida em que ele não faz parte do debate teórico que se pretende desenvolver e por outro lado centra-se no factor Guerra tal como o realismo. O idealismo influenciou o período anterior ao em análise, entre 1919 e 1945. Recorremos ao Realismo que influencia a Guerra-fria e o Pluralismo que reage a este paradigma.<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6">[6]</a> Segundo Fred Halliday, ( 1999 : 24) Hans Morganthau escreveu em 1978, Politcs Among Nations, Henry Kissinger, World Restore e Kenneth Waltz Man in the state and War e Martin Wight escreveu Power Polits (1946).<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7">[7]</a> Keohane, R.O. and J.S. Nye (Eds) (1971) Transnational Relations and World Politics. Harvard University Press, Cambridge e Keohane, R.O. and J.S. Nye (1977) Power and Interdependence. Second Edition. Glenview: Scott Foresman.<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8">[8]</a> Schumpeter, JA (1950) capitalism, socialism and democracy, third edition, New York, Harper and Brother Publishers<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9">[9]</a> Dahl, RA, 1971, Polyarchy. Participation and opposition, New Haven London<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10">[10]</a> Diamond, L, 1990, three paradoxes of democracy, Journal of democracy, 1, Summer, 1990, pp 48-60<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11">[11]</a> Forma de governo em que o poder esta nas mãos de um pequeno numero de indivíduos organizados em partido politico. Tal poder e alcançado através da competição (concorrência) em eleições.<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12">[12]</a> Gastil R. D. (1987) Freedom in the world: political Rights and Civil Liberties 1986-1987, Greenwoods Press.<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13">[13]</a> Lefwichi, A 1996 two cheer of democracy. Democracy and developmental state, In Lefwichi, Adain, Ed Democracy and Development. Cambridge Plity Press.<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14">[14]</a> Uso sistemático de violência para forçar mudanças sociais políticas e legais .<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15">[15]</a> Relatório final da Comissão de Segurança Humana <a href="http://www.humansecurity-chs.org/finalreport%20spanish.html">www.humansecurity-chs.org/finalreport spanish.html</a> . consultado a 10 Agosto 2004<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16">[16]</a> disponível no <a href="http://www.u.org/news/press/docs/2000/2000050/sgsm7382/doc.html">www.u.org/news/press/docs/2000/2000050/sgsm7382/doc.html</a>. Abril 2003NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-43512870747897388422008-11-26T04:23:00.001-08:002008-11-26T04:25:05.633-08:00CAPITULO 2 – A PROBLEMÁTICA DE SEGURANÇA HUMANA EM ÁFRICAOs processos de democratização em Africa : Que contributos para a segurança humana - o caso de Moçambique<br /><br />Arão Dava<br /><br />2.1 - O ESTADOS AFRICANOS : CARACTERISTICAS GERAIS<br /><br />Quase a totalidade dos países africanos que emergiram do período pós-colonial apresentam hoje, uma multiplicidade de elementos, entre eles, a diversidade étnica, cultural, linguistica, racial e religiosa. Esta diversidade que resultou da arbitrariedade da partilha e colonização do continente tem efeitos nas caracteristicas actuais dos Estados Africanos.<br /><br />De acordo com Holst, os Estados são compostos por três componentes basilares : a ideia de Estado, a expressão institucional do Estado e a base física. A Ideia de Estado incluiu, contracto social implícito e o consenso ideológico; a expressão institucional do Estado, inclui o consenso nas regras de jogo político, igual acesso as decisões e alocações, distinção clara entre ganho privado e serviço público, controlo civil sobre os militares e a base física do Estado inclui a soberania efectiva e o consenso nacional e internacional sobre os limites territoriais e a legitimidade do Estado (Holist, 1996 :).<br /><br />Importa referir, apesar dos Estados serem compostos pelos mesmos componentes, acima refenciados por (Holist, ibid.), eles diferem-se pelos modelos, isto é pelo forma como são constituídos. Assim sendo, tendo em conta os diferentes modelos de Estados, poderemos distinguir : a Nação-Estado e o Estado-Nação. Na Nação-Estado, a nação precede o Estado e tem um papel preponderante na formação deste. O objectivo do Estado neste caso, é de proteger e expressar a nação,. Exemplo claros deste modelo de Estado são os casos da Alemanha na Europa, Swazilândia em África e Japão na Ásia. Por outro lado, temos o Estado-Nação, no qual, o Estado, joga um papel decisivo na criação da Nação. O Estado, gera e propaga elementos culturais uniformes, tais como a língua, costume e lei que com o tempo constituem uma entidade cultural única que se identifica com o Estado. Os Estados Unidos da América são um exemplo ilustrativo deste modelo de Estado.<br /><br />Na prática, não existem modelos puros, mas misturas de vários modelos com predominância de um dos modelos acima referenciados. O continente africano é predominado por Estados-Nação, isto é, por situações em que os Estados pós-coloniais geraram e propagaram elementos culturais uniformes tais como língua, costume, lei que constituem uma entidade cultural comum dentro das fronteiras arbitrarias constituídas pelas potências colonizadoras.<br /><br />De acordo com Holist, os Estados africanos como a maior parte dos Estados criados, apôs 1945, possuem características estruturais como:<br /><br />1. Não existe um contracto social para a sua criação ( do tipo os indivíduos e o Levithan.<br />2. São bastante influenciados pelo legado colonial<br />3. Baixo nível de legitimidade vertical (autoridade, reciprocidade, confiança e prestação de contas largamente ausentes) degenerando em estruturas autoritárias;<br />4. Dificuldade do Estado consolidar-se face a elevada lealdade dos individous aos poderes locais.<br />5. Fraca legitimidade horizontal, isto é, sem sentido de comunidade entre os seus membros e com o elemento “identidade” é bastante instrumentalizado e manipulado.<br />6. Alto grau de personalização do Estado, com largas redes patrimoniais em que a base política é constituída pela relação "patrão-cliente" em vez do relacionamento legal-racional ( Holist, 1996).<br /><br />John Burton defende que nenhuma (construção de Nação ou Estado) pode ter sucesso forçando as pessoas a um comportamento que perverte ou destroi a sua identidade e os priva das suas necessidades como são os casos das identidade e liberdades (Burton, 1990:37). Porem, em Africa, com o advento das independências, dois desafios se colocaram simultaneamente aos novos regimes. Por um lado consolidação do Estado e por outro lado a construção da nação.<br /><br />O programa de consolidação do Estado e construção da nação que prevaleceu em muito dos Estados africanos consistiu na assumpção de que a diversidade das identidades étnica, cultural, linguistica, racial e religiosa era por inerência negativa e obstrucionista do Estado e que para que o processo de construção da nação decorresse com sucesso era preciso que diferentes identidades fossem erradicadas, submersas ou subordinadas á identidade do grupo ou grupos que dominam o poder do Estado. Esta opção produziu efeitos perversos para a segurança humana, isto porque a partir daqui diferentes grupos identintários ficaram privados da sua liberdade e submetidos as carências. Como consequencia os diferentes grupos identitários que não se identificavam com o poder vigente ficaram submetidos a insegurança humana, chegando algumas vezes a rebelarem-se contra o Estado.<br /><br />2.2 - A GUERRA FRIA E SUA INFLUÊNCIA PARA A INSEGURAÇA HUMANA NOS ESTADOS AFRICANOS<br /><br />A questão central da Guerra-fria, era a Segurança militar e “Estato-Centrica” sendo que as armas de destruição em massa constituíam a principal ameaça à Segurança. Enquanto, o equilíbrio global era conseguido a custa destas "super-armas", a nível regional e nacional um quadro diferente caracterizado pelas proxy wars tomava conta do continente (O´Grady:2003)<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">[1]</a>.<br /><br />O países africanos conquistaram as suas independência a partir dos anos 50 numa altura em que o mundo estava dividido em duas partes. As independências eram vistas como saída para problemas, como pobreza, injustiça, exclusão política e violência física e estrutural (política, económica e social) que caracterizavam os países colonizados. No entanto, tal como defende Viera, ao invés de se virarem às suas agendas internas, os Estados Africanos entraram na agenda das rivalidades globais:<br /><br />“As avaliações das posições assumidas na arena internacional e na política domestica dos países do sul submetiam se a luz dos interesses e rivalidades globais, que pouco ou nada tinham frequentemente a ver com os eventos e motivações concretas” (Viera 1991:73) <br /><br />A réplica da Guerra Fria em África consistiu na luta pelo estabelecimento e expansão de redes de segurança baseadas em aliados estratégicos independentemente do tipo de regime, ou de governo. Como resultado, muitas vezes os regimes africanos inconscientes da complexidade do problema em que se envolviam involuntária ou voluntariamente acabavam por tomar partido de um dos lados no quadro da Guerra Fria, sendo deste modo classificados como pró ocidentais ou pró Leste (Zacarias, 1991:143).<br /><br />Com efeito, ao ritmo das suas tendências hegemónicas, as duas super potências foram dando assistência a regimes ou movimentos políticos considerados como aliados, num apoio que se traduzia na provisão desregrada de armas de pequeno porte e armas ligeiras, não tendo em consideração a fragilidade ou a capacidade de sustentação de tais regimes ou movimentos. Esta assistência resultou, por um lado, na criação de um ambiente propicio para o surgimento e manutenção de regimes autoritários, autocráticos e militarizados que se mantiveram no poder a custa de armas e, por outro lado, a emergência de movimentos rebeldes cujo objectivo central era de desestabilizar os governos no poder (Leão, 1994:7<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2">[2]</a>).<br /><br />Picasso (2003:67) afirma que no contexto da Guerra Fria a importância de África provinha do seu valor económico e geostratégico, dai que enquanto os EUA envidavam esforços no sentido de neutralizar a influência soviética, impedir o expansionismo soviético, a URSS por outro lado se preocupava em estender a influência do comunismo em África.<br /><br />Neste sentido, constatamos que a segurança, nesta altura estava directamente associada à segurança de Estado na dimensão global da Guerra Fria, ficando tudo dependente desta. Nessa época enquanto as manifestações do xadrez da Guerra Fria, foram as proxy wars (Angola e Moçambique) e as respectivas ligações à segurança global por exemplo e as privações políticas económicas e sociais que tiveram o factor homem com o a principal vítima provocaram profunda insegurança humana.<br /><br />Durante a Guerra Fria os problemas de insegurança humana nos Estados africanos ficaram para o segundo plano. A prioridade era a garantia da segurança nacional, ligada a aspectos militares e aos do Poder do Estado. Esta situação fez com que alguns regimes políticos se tornassem eles mesmos factores de insegurança humana devido ao seu comportamento despótico e devido a dependência de tudo ao contexto de segurança estato-cêntrica.<br /><br />Assim, a Guerra Fria, conseguiu estabelecer uma estabilidade relativa (apesar de artificial e opressiva) em várias partes de África, uma região considerada pelas duas super potências como tabuleiro ideal para o jogo da Guerra Fria. Tal estabilidade relativa iria desmoronar-se juntamente com o muro de Berlim, em 1989. A fachada da Guerra Fria e da sua estabilidade relativa deixou mais visivel a vulnerábilidade e inseguranca do continente sob ponto de vista humano.<br /><br />A insegurança humana em África está profundamente ligada a todo o processo de perda e busca de legitimidade por parte dos Estados, numa altura em que graças a Guerra Fria, comportamentos autoritários e violentos sob ponto de vista humano eram tolerados. Assim sob ponto de vista da legitimidade dos governos, poderemos identificar duas fases distintos vividas durante a Guerra Fria em África:<br /><br />1. – Alto nível de legitimidade dos governos - Este é o primeiro momento que começa com as independências num clima de euforia e esperança, marcado por uma grande adesão popular, e em muitos casos verdadeira participação popular nas decisões políticas do novo país (Cravinho 2004:1)<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3">[3]</a><br /><br />As novas elites aceitam o poder à data da independência com o argumento, em muitos casos correcto, de representar a vontade popular. A legitimidade política dos novos regimes assentava no protagonismo da luta anti-colonial, quase que de forma exclusiva. Ela não resultava das escolhas dos programas políticos que os novos regimes podiam ter, nem na consagração eleitoral, antes assentava no anti-colonialismo, no mérito de se ter realizado o sonho da libertação do domínio colonial ( Ihonvbere e Mbaku, 1998:1).<br /><br />Pouco depois das independências assistiu-se a tendência de ocorrência de sistemas de partidos únicos onde a ideia de uma “democracia popular” é expressa através do partido único, o acesso ao poder é feito através da organização partidária e as leis são feitas cumprir através da persuasão ideológica ou coerção. O Partido governamental torna-se num instrumentos de grupos da elite para conter o poder a todo o custo, mostrando-se indisponível a participar em competições políticas sérias e decentes.<br /><br />A grande fragilidade desta forma de legitimação do poder tornou-se visível em pouco tempo, porque ao fim de alguns anos o brilho de legitimidade anti-colonial tinha esvanecido, tornando-se essencial criar outras formas de legitimação, que poderiam ser produzidas a partir da própria experiência de governação.<br /><br />Mbaku e Ihonvbere (1998:2) referem que quando tomaram o controle sobre o poder político e económico, as novas elites concentraram os recursos em centros urbanos, marginalizaram as populações rurais, e iniciaram com os processos de despolarização, intimidação e dominação das comunidades. Sendo assim, as populações desses países começaram a encarar a independência e seus líderes como uma espécie de “punição” que trouxe nada senão a miséria, sofrimento, frustração de esperanças, terror, exploração, marginalização e desespero. Assim o novo Estado pós colonial, visto como esperança na garantia de Segurança Humana, torna-se ele mesmo factor de insegurança, isto porque, a forma de governação acaba remetendo as populações a situações de medo e carências generalizadas.<br /><br />Pela sua própria natureza esta forma original de governação era pouco tolerante, porque resultava de uma associação íntima entre a causa da independência nacional e a chegada ao poder, ou seja, qualquer combate travado contra o regime facilmente poderia ser considerado um crime ou uma contestação à independência e à soberania nacional (Cravinho, 2004 : 2).<br /><br />2. Baixo nível de legitimidade dos governos - A segunda fase é a da reduzida legitimidade política, na qual os governos, que em muitos casos já são novos governos que tomaram o poder por via de golpes de Estado, governam por todo o lado pela repressão, a coberto das super potências que defendiam também os seus interesses geoestrategicos.<br /><br />Com efeito verifica-se em África o desenvolvimento de regimes incompetentes e corruptos que sobrevivem com base na repressão e/ou na aplicação de mecanismos de distribuição patrimonial (extremamente corrosivos de qualquer consolidação institucional). Como exemplo desta forma de governar temos Houphoët-Boigny, na Costa do Marfim, Mobuto Sesse Seko, na Republica Democrática do Congo (ex-Zaire) e Nino Vieira da Guine Bissau.<br /><br />Tanto Houphoët-Boigny, como Mobuto Sesse Seko e Nino Vieira foram durante os anos da Guerra Fria considerados sábios, porque tinham conseguido na sua época manter a paz social através da distribuição criteriosa dos recursos do Estado. No entanto, qualquer análise da total erosão destes Estados hoje, reconhece que as raízes da actual desagregação do estado podem ser encontradas na gestão patrimonial, étnica e regionalista e repressiva destes governantes.<br /><br />Esta forma de governação atingiu o seu apogeu em meados dos anos oitenta, altura em que, a grande maioria de regimes no continente africano consideravam a participação da população na construção do seu próprio futuro como algo de indesejável e perigoso. (Cravinho, 2004:4).<br /><br />Nas duas situações acima descritas (alto e baixo nível de legitimidade) constata-se que a segurança humana foi ignorada a favor da do Estado.<br /><br />A Segurança Humana ( ver ponto 1.3.4) refere-se a liberdade do medo e das carências, alcançáveis respectivamente através da Paz Social efectiva e a liberdade das carência e do desenvolvimento humano sustentável. Tal como tivemos a oportunidade de nos referir anteriormente ela depende de factores como democracia, direitos humanos, desenvolvimento económico, sustentabilidade do meio ambiente, estabilidade militar e reconhecimento que as pessoas são a referência primária da segurança.<br /><br />Como anteriormente observamos (ver ponto 2.2), a euforia da independência não permitiu que as populações tivessem espaço para optar por programas políticos que pudessem resolver os seu problemas. Num mundo dividido entre o ocidente e o leste, os novos governos pouco experientes acabavam por tomar partido de um dos lados e assim tornando-se alvo do outro. A questão central destes governo era a manutenção no poder com o apoio do seu aliado estratégico e em prejuízo das populações. A manutenção no poder foi feita a custa da repressão e/ou na aplicação de mecanismos de distribuição patrimonial remetendo a população a situações de carências e medo generalizado, isto é a situação de insegurança humana generalizada.<br /><br />Podemos deste modo aferir que o factor humano que deveria constituir o principal referencial de segurança foi ignorado. Aspectos como democracia, direitos humanos, desenvolvimento económico e estabilidade militar foram seriamente afectados nos Estados africanos pelos partidos únicos devido à repressão, incapacidade de levar ao desenvolvimento, a pobreza e conflitos patrocinados pelos respectivos aliados estratégicos. Assim, conclui-se claramente que Sistema de Segurança Internacional bipolarizado, especialmente virado aos aspectos militares e de estabilidade de regimes favoráveis, constituiu terreno fértil para o nascimento, desenvolvimento e manutenção de partidos únicos, autoritários, militares, intolerantes à oposição, desrespeitadores das liberdades fundamentais e praticantes de acções políticas repressivas, levando a uma grave crise da democracia e agravando a Segurança Humana (Nnoli;1994:1).<br /><br />O caso de Moçambique, reflecte claramente esta situação. Em nome dos operários e camponeses, o movimento de libertação, FRELIMO, que tinha aglutinado várias organizações políticas, transformou-se em partido único. Com a independência, este partido aprovou uma constituição de orientação socialista; proibiu os partidos políticos; iniciativa económica privada e as manifestações étnicas, linguisticas, ou religiosas como identidades de grupos, justificando esta medida com a necessidade de construcao e consolidacao do Estado. A opcao pela orientacao socialista tornou o Estado alvo de investidas ocidente atraves do regime do apartheid da Africa do Sul e a proibição do gozo das identidades políticas, culturais e económicas tornou as populações inseguras na medida em que elas se viram a partir daí, privadas gozar de valores que esperavam conquistar com a independência do país. Segundo Walker (1997:65) o fim Guerra Fria permitiu questionar a primazia do Estado em duas direcções : o que significa estar seguro e o que deve ser protegido. A simples sobrevivência física não é suficiente, dado que expressões de Poder e ameaça não decorrem apenas de questões militares. Pode-se então definir Segurança em relação a processos sociais, culturais, económicos ecológicos, assim como ameaças geopolíticas. Constata-se assim que para o “Partido Unico” a segurança resumiu-se ao Estado, sendo o regime do apartheid atraves da RENAMO a principal ameaca. A as privacoes sociais, politicas e economicas, as pandemias e calamidades que afectavam muitas vezs ao individuo problemas nao eram vistos como ameacam suficiente para a existencia e consolidacao do Estado.<br /><br />2.3 O VENTOS DE MUDANÇA : O PROCESSO DE DEMOCRATIZAÇÃO EM ÁFRICA<br /><br />Importa recordar antes de mais que para o presente trabalho, define-se democratização como um processo que leva a transição de qualquer regime para o democrático que mais do que a mera realização de eleições regulares competitivas, caminha para a construção de instituições que garantam ao cidadão, os direitos e liberdades tradicionais individuais e colectivas que imponham controles múltiplos e mútuos, e acima de tudo para uma sensibilidade comportamental, tendo em conta o contexto social, geográfico e histórico. Tal processo consiste no alargamento das oportunidades de contestação através de oligarquias concorrenciais e no alargamento das oportunidades de participação do cidadão na vida política, económica, social e cultural do Estado com o fim último de garantir a liberdade do medo e das carências, paz social efectiva e o desenvolvimento.<br /><br />Segundo Picasso (2003 : 67), com o fim da Guerra Fria., alteraram os tradicionais interesses e a necessidade de bloquear a expansão comunista em África. Assim o colapso da URSS, a “desideologização” das relações internacionais e os avanços tecnológicos obrigaram o ocidente a reformular os seus interesses no continente.<br /><br />Uma vez terminada a Guerra Fria, a utilidade geo-estratégica dos regimes de partido único africanos tinha deixado de existir. Os Estados Unidos, França e Reino Unido passaram a pressionam os regimes africanos para realizarem eleições trazendo deste modo “os ventos de mudança” ao continente africano (Kpuendeh, 1992:2).<br /><br />A grande pressão ocidental para a realização de eleições em África, permitiu a renovação da legitimidade política dos governantes. Contudo, em muitos países como Zimbabwe, Costa do Marfim, Republica Democrática do Congo, Sudão, Libéria, Líbia e Guine Bissau esta pressão não teve grande consequência em termos de apoio à democratização (ibid).<br /><br />È preciso reconhecer no entanto, que tal pressão exercida por via do controle sobre recursos da cooperação internacional – a chamada condicionalidade político-económica - apesar de limitar-se a obrigar os Estados a realizarem eleições, empenhando-se pouco na consolidação democrática, criou condições para que os regimes africanos começassem a incluir nas suas agendas de governação aspectos como :<br /><br />1 Promoção do desenvolvimento.<br />2 Reforço da legitimidade vertical do Estado através do reforço da autoridade, reciprocidade, confiança, transparência e prestação de contas dos governos.<br />3 Reforço da legitimidade horizontal, isto é, do sentido de comunidade entre os seus membros.<br />4 “Despersonalização” do Estado, e das redes patrimoniais e de "clientelismo".<br />5 Reforço dos Poderes locais como parceiros dos Estado na promoção da Segurança Humana.<br /><br />A democratização em África veio abrir caminho para a liberdade do medo e das carências, para a participação e direitos políticos e para o desenvolvimento. Estes aspectos trazem consigo a paz efectiva e a liberdade das carências, porque promovem a concórdia, liberdade e desenvolvimento.<br /><br />Com efeito na declaração solene da Conferência sobre Segurança, Estabilidade, Desenvolvimento e Cooperação (UA, 2003) os lideres africanos definem segurança humana como sendo “ a protecção dos povos e suas comunidades de desastres naturais, ecológicos e degradação ambiental, pobreza e problemas económicos incluindo as condições nas quais suas os indivíduos possam viver plenamente”. No seu conceito de segurança estes lideres incluem, a protecção dos princípios da democracia e liberdades fundamentais dos cidadãos, a liberdade do medo, a paz e a estabilidade, o direito de participar plenamente no processo de governação, no desenvolvimento e no acesso aos recursos e na satisfação das necessidades básicas. (OUA, 2000).<br /><br />Os atributos acima colocados, demostram que uma década depois da Guerra Fria, os Estados Africanos “regulamentaram” uma prática que foi sendo desenvolvida e aceite como válida. O mérito desta regulamentação, está na mudança dos valores de segurança exclusivamente atenientes ao Estado (Estato-Cêntrica) e ao alinhamento do referente primário de segurança. Nestes termos, a segurança humana, passou a ter atenção e prioridades que efectivamente merecem, na medida em que os seus pressupostos passaram a dominar o pensamento sobre segurança, promovendo consequentemente o desenvolvimento. Este é um mérito das reformas ocorridas com o fim da Guerra Fria.<br /> Tal como nos referimos, a democratização (ver 1.3.2) é um processo. Com a “regulamentação” de princípios da democracia sao alargadas as oportunidades do cidade participar livremente na vida politica, economica e cultural do Estado. Estes processo tras consigo novos valores como as liberdades fundamentais dos cidadãos, o direito de participar plenamente no processo de governação, no desenvolvimento e no acesso aos recursos e visando a satisfação das necessidades básicas. Consequenemente os regimes autoritarios dos partidos unicos sao abolidos e o processo de consrucao do Estado passa a ser mais inclusivo respeitando os diversos grupos identintarios sob ponto de vista politico, economico, religioso, racico ou cultural. Vale a pena recordarmos que no seu agrupamento das categorias de definicao de democracias Mark de Tollenaere, inclui a categoria dos minimalistas que consideram que é suficiente que um país tenha eleições competitivas e regulares para ser chamado democracia Mark de Tollenaere (2002:227). Ainda que nao sejam suficientes, as eleicoes constituiram o primeiro passo rumo a democracia.<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">[1]</a> Margareth O´Grady, Pequenas Armas e África «<a href="http://www.caat.org.uk.information/publication/countries/africa-0909.php»">http://www.caat.org.uk.information/publication/countries/africa-0909.php»</a> 23 de Maio 2003<br /><br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2">[2]</a> Monografia disponível na internet - http--www.iss.co.za-pubs-Monographs-No94Port-Intro.pdf – consultada a 12.04.2006<br /><br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3">[3]</a> Cravinho, João “ A União Europeia e o aprofundamento da Democracia em África <a href="http://www.ieei.pt/files/Paper_JoaoCravinho_final.pdf">http://www.ieei.pt/files/Paper_JoaoCravinho_final.pdf</a> - Abril – 2004.NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-58112789347205635772008-11-26T04:21:00.002-08:002008-11-26T04:22:51.401-08:00CAPITULO 3 - A PROBLEMÁTICA DA INSEGURANÇA HUMANA EM MOÇAMBIQUEOs processos de democratização em Africa : Que contributos para segurança humana - o caso de Moçambique<br /><br />Arão Dava<br /><br />Tal como nos referimos (ver 1.3.4), na abordagem de segurança humana, o indivíduo é o objecto referencial, isto é objecto central de segurança. Este objecto referencial, estará inseguro quando estiver privado da garantia das suas necessidades básicas, como as liberdades políticas, económicas, culturais e sociais, a paz e o desenvolvimento. Tal como notaremos a seguir, factores internos e externos concorrerm para que Moçambique caminhasse rumo a uma situação de insegurança humana generalizada desde os primeiros anos da independência até aos inícios da década de 90 do século passado.<br /><br />A independência de Moçambique, em 1975 acontece numa altura em que as Relações Internacionais e regionais eram fortemente dominadas pelas tradições do Realismo com o Estado nacional moderno a constituir o objecto referencial de segurança a ser protegido. Neste sentido constituíam ameaças externas à Segurança Nacional, a agressão militar, espionagem, operações encobertas, invasão territorial e o bloqueio económico. A nível interno as ameaças eram os apoios internos àquelas ameaças externas, acrescidas a noção de subversão<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">[1]</a>. Neste período, a nível internacional o factor predominante era Guerra Fria e a nível regional, a sua réplica, com o domínio dos regimes minoritário de Ian Smith no Zimbabwe e do apartheid na África do Sul.<br /><br />A réplica da Guerra Fria na região ( proxy wars) terá contribuído para a situação de insegurança humana (medo e as carências), traduzidas na pobreza, injustiça, exclusão política e violência física e estrutural (política, económica e social) particularmente em Moçambique e Angola, cuja alteração passava necessariamente pela democratização.<br /><br />A história recente de Moçambique mostra claramente que a insegurança humana resultou tanto de factores externos ( Guerra Fria e sobretudo o regime do apartheid) como de factores internos atinentes ao processo de governação do país.<br /><br />3.1 – FACTORES EXTERNOS<br /><br />Moçambique conquista a sua independência num contexto internacional marcado pela Guerra Fria, um conflito bipolar cujas “regras de jogo” preconizavam que as vitórias de um constituíam a derrotas do outro.<br /><br />A medida que as independências iam acontecendo tornava se cada vez mais evidente a replica da Guerra Fria, a nível regional. Na época, a região era dominada pelos regimes minoritários da então Rodésia do Sul (Ian Smith) e da África do Sul (apartheid) que se opunham a libertação dos Estados da região<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2">[2]</a>. Agostinho Zacarias explica que quando alcançassem as independências os países, eram arrastados para o debate Este-Oeste, antes mesmo de efectuarem o debate nacionalista sobre suas estratégias de desenvolvimento. Os que tinham importantes relacionamentos com a URSS eram vistos pelos EUA como potenciais inimigos e vice-versa. Este facto terá deixado pouco espaço para que os novos regimes mergulhassem nas suas próprias realidades e definissem por si próprios as suas opções estratégicas e estratégias de desenvolvimento (Zacarias, 1991:144).<br /><br />Havendo por parte do ocidente a necessidade de travar a expansão do comunismo, o regime do apartheid, que desde o Fim da Segunda Guerra Mundial, tinha conseguido se rodear de alguns “Estados tampão”<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3">[3]</a> favoráveis ao seu governo, apresenta-se como defensor e bastião do capitalismo na região.<br /><br />A independência de Moçambique em 1975, foi percebida como uma forte ameaça à África do Sul e Rodésia do Sul, os dois regimes de minoria branca que restavam na região. Com a independência desta colónia portuguesa, os regimes de minoria branca, percebiam uma ameaça dupla. Por um lado, a ameaça de perder o seu poder em benefício de uma região de regime de maioria e por outro lado o facto de esses regimes poderem vir a ser comunistas. A propósito, Samora Machel tinha escrito poucos anos antes do fim da luta armada<br /><br />“ Damos a nossa solidariedade e apoio total ás forças nacionalistas que na Rodésia, África do Sul e Namíbia lutam contra o regime de Salisbúria e de Pretória. A luta de libertação dos povos da África Austral tem impacto imediato e directo na nossa luta e explica os laços próximos que nos unem.” (citado por Muslow, 1985:70).<br /><br />Este posicionamento de Samora deixou clara a sua visão sobre o “Status Quo” regional e que a independência de Moçambique não seria um fim sem que a região não estivesse totalmente liberta da dominação minoritária.<br /><br />Efectivamente, Moçambique constituiu-se em Estados de orientação marxista-leninista, e com o apoio da União Soviética, de Cuba e da China, trabalhou com o ANC, na África do Sul e com a ZANU-FP, na Rodésia do Sul, numa iniciativa destinada a derrotar a dominação minoritária branca na África Austral. Cinco anos depois da independência de Moçambique, a Rodésia do Sul torna-se também independente, e adopta o nome de Zimbabwe pondo fim ao regime de minoria branca.<br /><br />O papel de Moçambique para a independência do Zimbabwe e para a transformação da Organização dos Países da Linha da Frente, OPLF<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4">[4]</a> numa organização de cooperação regional (SADCC) destinada a diminuir a dependência económica da região especialmente em relação a África do Sul trouxe perturbações à preponderância sul africana sendo deste modo interpretadas em Pretória como grande ameaça a Segurança Nacional<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5">[5]</a>, e provocando deste modo uma resposta rígida da África do Sul, no sentido de preservar a intocabilidade do apartheid (Abrahamsson e Nilsson,1998:73-107).<br /><br />A resposta rígida sul-africana consistiu na reformulação radical da política de confronto com a oposição, pondo fim a política de desanuviamento e dando início a chamada Total Nacional Strategy sob liderança do Primeiro Ministro P.W. Botha e do Ministro da Defesa, Magnus Malan de modo a, de uma maneira mais agressiva, possibilitar a sobrevivência do sistema do apartheid.<br /><br />O cerne da Total Nacional Strategy era a abordagem "holistica" e militarista de combate ás ameaças ao regime do apartheid, tanto domesticamente quanto internacionalmente. Esta estratégia tinha como ponto principal a desestabilização<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6">[6]</a> militar directa, através da intervenção em larga escala, sem contudo declaração de guerra em países da região. Além disso, ela previa assistência a grupos anti-governamentais (UNITA em Angola e RENAMO em Moçambique), assistência financeira a guerrilheiros, sabotagem a alvos económicos e militares dos OPLF, coerção económica e envolvimento em golpes militares (Abrahamsson e Nilsson, 1998:89).<br /><br />Segundo Hanlon, (1986:29) a desestabilização levada a cabo pela África do Sul não foi somente realizada como defesa do apartheid. As consequências catastróficas da desestabilização em forma de sofrimento humano em Moçambique são, em grande escala, um efeito de duas diferentes “necessidades” políticas e internacionais que coincidiram : por um lado, a necessidade sul-africana de defender o sistema do apartheid e, por outro lado, a necessidade “ocidental” geral de recolocar as experiências socialistas do terceiro mundo na esfera ocidental.<br /><br />A Total Nacional Strategy era uma resposta a uma análise que indicava que a África do Sul estava em face de uma possível extinção, isto e, uma devastação total. Embora tal devastação fosse apresentada como um "complot" comunista, a sua força retórica era grande e residia em dois aspectos :<br /><br />1. Um dizia respeito a percepção do perigo vindo da União Soviética, agindo na região por via de Moçambique e Angola independentes, através Congresso Nacional Africano (ANC) e da Organização do Povo do Sudoeste Africano (SWAPO).<br />2. O outro consistia na luta contra o sistema do apartheid em favor de um sistema político baseado no princípio de um homem – um voto.<br /><br />O primeiro era principalmente analisado sob forma de uma ameaça ideológica ao capitalismo e a economia de mercado, enquanto que o último tocava muito mais profundamente a comunidade "bóer" sul-africana.<br /><br />Embora as consequências ideológicas de uma tomada de poder comunista fossem seguramente horrorizantes no meio político conservador sul-africano, a percepção de uma extinção da cultura, valores e missão histórica dos "boers" na região era encarada quase que como um holocausto. Daí que todos os meios foram usados para debelar as ameaças (Abrahamsson e Nilsson, 1998:89).<br /><br />No quadro da implementação Nacional Total Strategy as autoridades sul africanas, após a independência da Rodésia do Sul, aproveitam-se da MNR, um movimento criado pelo regimes de Ian Smith para travar a luta de libertação do Zimbabwe, para as suas acções de desestabilização em Moçambique (Taju:1988).<br /><br />Segundo Abrahamsson e Nilsson, (1998:163) instrutores militares sul-africanos foram colocados em diferentes bases do território moçambicano e ensinado a tirar proveito das contradições locais criadas pela governação da FRELIMO (ver 3.2 deste capitulo) para se estabelecerem nas zonas rurais de Moçambique.<br /><br />O padrão era de que após um primeiro período de alguns meses em que se adoptava uma atitude suave em relação a população, começava a desestabilização, ou seja ataques destruidores contra todas as infra-estruturas que representavam a FRELIMO ou o Estado.<br /><br />Segundo Abrahamsson e Nillson (1998 : 253-256) as pessoas que eram membros conhecidos da FRELIMO ou os funcionários públicos, tais como professores e pessoal de saúde, foram mortos e mutilados. A população que vivia em aldeias ou pequenas localidades, foi alvo de perseguições para se sentir obrigada a fugir para o mato e afastar-se da influência da FRELIMO. A partir da segunda metade de 1982, a desestabilização militar utilizou todas as formas ao seu dispor dirigindo-se contra dois tipos principais de alvos :<br /><br />Em primeiro lugar as infra-estruturas importantes do ponto de vista económico. Com a destruição destas infra-estruturas como estradas e pontes ficava aniquilada a capacidade do Estado de fornecer aos cidadãos, condições básicas de sobrevivência.<br /><br />Em segundo lugar as infra-estruturas sociais do campo, especialmente escolas e instituições de saúde. A este respeito foram especialmente claros, os ataques contra instituições de saúde e escolas com regime internato. Assim, mandar os filhos para um internato ou ser internada numa maternidade do campo implica muito mais risco do que estar fora das instituições modernas da sociedade (que representam o Estado).<br /><br />Em consequência desses dois tipos de acções, no fim da Guerra, 28% da rede de estrada estava destruída, isto é intransitável, 35 % degradada e a ponte sobre o rio Zambeze, que liga o norte e sul destruída; as linhas-férreas de Sena, ligando Tete ao Porto da Beira e Cuamba-Lichinga vital para o acesso de Niassa ao porto de Nacala estavam destruídas; cerca de 30 % dos furos de água na zona rural foram tornados inoperacionais, 70 % da barragens e 30 % do sistema de irrigação tornaram-se inoperacionais; cerca de 30 % da rede armazenista retalhista (loja e cantinas) foi destruída; 87 % das rede de correios ficou destruída, 70 % dos escritórios da administração, 58 % dos veículos, 50 % da rede da rádio-transmissão das administrações distritais e localidades foram destruídas; cerca de 40 % dos centros de multiplicação de semente, 38 % dos viveiros de plantas foram destruídos ou tornados inoperacionais, 66 % dos tanques carracicidas para gado também foram destruídos ou tornados operacionais (Diogo, 2002: 210-211).<br /><br />Cerca de 46 % da rede escolar de ensino primário (EP1) e 28 % das escolas técnicas rurais foram destruídas ou tornadas inoperacionais; 36 % dos postos de saúde, particularmente nas zonas rurais, também foram destruídos ou tornados inoperacionais (Diogo, 2002: 210-211). Estima se que um milhão de pessoas tenham perdido a vida, mais de cinco milhões e trezentos mil (33 % da população) forçadas a deslocar se dentro do país, mais de um milhão e quinhentas mil (9,4% porcento da população) fora do país e cerca de cem mil tenham feito parte das forças da FRELIMO e da RENAMO (Diogo, 2002: 210-211).<br /><br />Estes dados mostram claramente que as pessoas que no deveria constituir objecto referencial de segurança, foram as principais vitimas. A insegurança humana resulta do medo e das carências. Devido a guerra as populações viviam inseguras pelo medo de serem usados como soldados, ou simplesmente mortas. A destruição de infra-estruturas reduzia a capacidade não só do Estado fornecer os meios de sobrevivência a população mas a capacidade das próprias populações satisfazerem as suas necessidades básicas, privando as do acesso a educacao, saude, desenvolvimento e sobretudo da propria vida..<br /><br />3.2 – FACTORES INTERNOS <br /><br />A independência de Moçambique em 1975, trouxe consigo as expectativa de bem estar, isto é, de liberdades do medo e das carências, assumidos como resultantes da colonizacao. Esta expectativa acabou sendo frustada poucos anos depois da independência, isto porque, as opções político-económicas do Estado, conduziram a alguns extractos da população moçambicana, (principalmente nas zonas rurais como veremos adiante) a uma situação de privação relativa. Só para recordarmos, a privação relativa constitui o fosso entre, por um lado, o que consideramos como sendo nosso direito ter, fazer, ser e por outro lado a nossa percepção sobre aquilo que outras pessoas, grupos de pessoas ou instituições nos permitem em termos de recursos e capacidades para satisfazer aquilo que assumimos como sendo nosso direito (Festinger, 1962 :262).<br /><br />Privando as populações da satisfação das suas necessidades básicas, o Estado tornou-se deste modo promotor de insegurança humana, reduzindo ao objecto referencial de segurança - o homem – o direito do seu bem estar e remetendo-o ao medo e as carências, isto e a privação do gozo das suas liberdades políticas, económicas e culturais, que se traduziam na pobreza, injustiça, e violência física e estrutural (política, económica e social).<br /><br />A segurança humana só pode ser alcançada através da garantia de factores como a democracia, direitos humanos, desenvolvimento económico, sustentabilidade do meio ambiente e estabilidade militar tendo sempre como referencia primaria as pessoas (Solomon e Cilliers 1996:6). Entretanto, no processo de construção do Estado moçambicano, “o partido único” adoptou, sob ponto de vista político, um sistema socialista “ditatorial”, sob ponto de vista económico, uma estratégia de desenvolvimento socialista e, sob ponto de vista militar, uma estratégia de segurança “estato-céntrica”, consequentemente o Estado vive 16 anos de instabilidade politico-militar e economicao.<br /><br />Assim, a esperança dos moçambicanos em ver a sua segurança garantida com a independência tornou se rapidamente num pesadelo, devido à desestabilização sul-africana do apartheid, contra o modelo de governação e às estratégias de desenvolvimento adoptadas pela FRELIMO.<br /><br />Ao invés de ser promotor de segurança, o próprio Estado acabou virando factor de insegurança do indivíduo, nomeadamente ao adoptar um modelo político de orientação socialista e de partido único que acabou ignorando totalmente os direitos e liberdade individuais a favor das colectivas, ignorou igualmente as especificidade culturais e religiosas a favor da modernidade de um Estado laico, os valores tradicionais a favor da modernidade do Estado, ignorando as diversidade tribal e regional a favor da nação. É preciso, no entanto, reconhecer que o modelo foi adoptado dentro de um contexto, muito próprio e se calhar necessário. Tal como explica Zacarias, na altura da independência duas opções se desenhavam para Moçambique ou se virava para o Leste ou para o Oeste<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7">[7]</a> (Zacarias,1991:143).<br /><br />O Estado moçambicano, não nasceu de eleições, referendos ou outros tipos de negociações. Ele é fruto de uma insurreição geral armada do povo, organizado e dirigido pela FRELIMO contra o regime colonial português. Esta insurreição foi fortemente apoiada pelos países de orientação socialista. A opção pelos países de orientação socialista apareceu com forma de desligar do ocidente que durante muitos anos deu apoio a Portugal.<br /><br />Este facto teve consequências profundas nos processos subsequentes, nomeadamente na natureza do Poder e do Estado que se criou e no sistema político que instituiu. Foi a Guerra Fria e o apartheid arrastaram o pais para o debate Este-Oeste numa perspectiva de segurança Estato-Cêntrica e militarizada, não permitindo qualquer espaço de manobra num debate nacionalistas, numa perspectiva de Segurança Humana (Zacarias 1991 :144 e Hunguana, 2006:5)<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8">[8]</a>.<br /><br />De acordo com Hunguana, uma vez proclamada a independência e fundado o Estado moçambicano, entrou-se na complexa fase da luta pela afirmação, sobrevivência e consolidação. Assim, neste processo de afirmação, sobrevivência e consolidação foi institucionalizado o “Poder Popular”, que veio a significar a “ditadura da aliança operário camponesa”, isto é, uma política geral exercida no interesse dos camponeses e dos trabalhadores, e por outro lado, a criação de instituições específicas no sentido de possibilitar a participação social na vida política (Hunguana, ibid.).<br /><br />Entretanto, de acordo com Bastos, (1999:170), estamos perante uma ditadura quando, o regime político, faz uso de uma filosofia ou ideologia exclusiva ou liderante, isto é, quando o Poder é sustentado por um conjunto de ideias ou princípios que não aceitam alternativas ao modelo de sociedade vigente, nem permitem a existência legal de oposição. Bastos (ibid), acrescenta igualmente está-se perante uma ditadura quando, existe um aparelho destinado a impor a ideologia a nível político, policial educativo e económico, e por outro lado quando não existe uma efectiva garantia de direitos pessoais dos cidadãos, não existe livre participação na designação dos governantes e nem um controlo do exercício das funções dos governantes.<br /><br />Como podemos observar o partido único dirigido pela FRELIMO, contribuiu substancialmente para a insegurança humana, resultando em grande parte de problemas como a pobreza, injustiça, e violência física e estrutural (política, económica e social) através das seguintes acções :<br /><br />A institucionalização do “Poder Popular" e a problemática dos direitos fundamentais - Tal como nos referimos anteriormente, o “Poder Popular”, significava uma política geral exercida no interesse dos camponeses e dos trabalhadores, e por outro lado, a criação de instituições específicas no sentido de possibilitar a participação social na vida política (Hunguana, 2006:5).<br /><br />Com a instituição do “Poder Popular” ficava automaticamente excluída a possibilidade de existência de uma oposição política, já que a FRELIMO, em nome dos operários e camponeses, dirigia o Estado sem alternativa nem alternância.<br /><br />Segundo Lalá e Ostheimer com a independência foi adoptada uma constituição, na qual se definia o papel da FRELIMO como forca de liderança do Estado e da sociedade, bem como assegurava a legitimação do partido único, eliminando deste modo, qualquer forma de pluralismo social (Lalá e Ostheimer (2004:4). Estas autoras acrescentam que os dissidentes da FRELIMO e membros da oposição que não optaram pelo exílio, rapidamente viram se forcados a integrar campos de reeducação na província do Niassa (campos de operação produção).<br /><br />A reivindicação de direitos básicos individuais, tais como liberdade de crença, opinião e associação, o pluralismo partidário, a independência dos tribunais, as eleições livres e secretas e eleição do presidente da Republica eram vistas pelo Estado como ameaças e crimes contra o Estado.<br /><br />Face a um sistema político que incluía características patrimoniais, tornando o Estado numa fonte de acumulação de privilégios e recursos materiais para os que a ele tinham acesso, a exclusão era o sentimento de largos segmentos da população.<br /><br />O exercício do Poder Popular a problemática de exclusão. A institucionalização do “Poder Popular”, iniciada na altura do terceiro congresso da FRELIMO, em 1977, implicou que as funções dos grupos dinamizadores<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9">[9]</a> foram distribuídas por outras instituições novas.<br /><br />Entre 1976-77 foram criadas as chamadas organizações democráticas de massas com destaque para OMM e a OJM, através das quais se estabelecia o relacionamento entre o Poder Político e a população (Abrahamsson e Nilson, 1998:256).<br /><br />As Assembleias Populares, a todos os níveis da sociedade tinham de se transformar nos novos órgãos de debate popular sobre a política exercida. Assim acabava a fase espontânea de revolução e o “Poder popular” iria ser consolidado em instituições fixas. Contudo, estas transformações não constituíam somente uma simples distribuição das tarefas a realizar, possivelmente o aspecto mais importante contido na institucionalização do Poder era a visão sobre a chefia (Abrahamsson e Nilson, (op.cit.):260).<br /><br />Segundo Hanlon (1984:135) com a institucionalização do “Poder Popular” a imagem da FRELIMO era também transformada. Por um lado, a imagem da FRELIMO era de um partido apenas dos melhores revolucionários do povo trabalhador e, contrariamente a situação em que todos podiam ser membros, a participação ficou limitada a uma elite. Por outro lado os critérios utilizados para escolher aqueles que podiam pertencer a essa elite eram uma grande limitação ao recrutamento.<br /><br />Esta visão de elite, tal como afirmam Abrahamsson e Nilson verificava-se aquando da escolha para as Assembleias Populares. Uma pessoas que quisesse ser membro do partido ou ser escolhida para a assembleia popular, não devia ter colaborado com o poder colonial; não devia ser religiosa e não devia ser polígama (Abrahamsson e Nilson,1998: 260)<br /><br />Destes critérios somente um - o não ter colaborado com a poder colonial - tinha base de apoio popular, isto porque ele dizia respeito especialmente aos régulos e a outras pessoas de hierarquia colonial que, durante o tempo colonial tinham estado ligados ao sistema colonial. As outras exigências afectavam seriamente grande parte da população, que ficou sem possibilidade de participar no trabalho político e eventualmente frustada com os “métodos de exclusão”, injustos e discriminatórios.<br /><br />O fracasso da estratégia de desenvolvimento e aumento da Pobreza - Enquanto que a década de 1970 pode ser descrita em larga medida como fase da consolidação do Poder pela FRELIMO, a de 1980 revelou os primeiros sintomas de um Estado em crise. Em termos materiais e económicos, o conceito de Estado, enquanto agente exclusivamente responsável pelo desenvolvimento económico nacional, provou ser um fracasso (Lalá e Ostheimer, 2004: 4).<br />€<br />Moçambique tinha adoptado a orientação socialista como estratégia de desenvolvimento. No entanto, poucos anos depois da independência, a situação económica e social sofriam uma degradação crescente. As medidas de emergência para tentar suster a economia não podiam ser permanentes. Era difícil manter os níveis de emprego na indústria com os baixos níveis de rendimento ou subsidiar a improdutividade das "machambas" estatais e manter também os subsídios para a alimentação das populações urbanas ou para as áreas sociais como saúde, educação e habitação, que acabaram por conduzir a uma deterioração deste serviços (PNUD,1998:51).<br /><br />O decréscimo dos níveis de produção não podia de modo algum compatibilizar com o nível de crescimento da população, pelo que foi necessário fazer uma contracção de consumo com impactos na redução do bem estar das populações e a consequente deterioração dos seus níveis de vida. O estabelecimento de aldeias comunais e a consequente recolocação das populações à força despoletaram forte resistência por largos sectores da população rural.<br /><br />De acordo com o PNUD, (1998:51), nos princípios da década de 80 a estratégia socialista apresentava sinais evidentes de desmoronamento nomeadamente pelo crescimento do nível económico sem disponibilidade de divisas e pelo déficit no orçamento do Estado provocado pelos subsídios estatais á educação, saúde e despesas correntes do sector estatal, incluindo empresas estatais<br /><br />Tal desmoronamento resultou na incapacidade do Estado em satisfazer as necessidades humanas básicas tais como educação, saúde, alimentação e vestuário, sobretudo nas zonas rurais. Resultou por outro lado, na privação relativa das populações, atendendo a expectativa de melhoria das suas vidas como resultado da independência.<br /><br />A tradicional economia de subsistência e a iniciativa privada não tinham lugar no modelo socialista de desenvolvimento implantando, marginalizando grandes segmentos da sociedade que se desiludiam cada vez mais com a o governo da FRELIMO (Cabaço -1995 :93).<br /><br />Face a este cenário caracterizado pela incapacidade do Estado em satisfazer as necessidades básicas, agravado pela exclusão da economia de subsistência e da iniciativa privada na estratégia de desenvolvimento socialista, grandes segmentos da população viviam privadas das suas necessidades humanas básicas, estando deste modo humanamente inseguras, isto se considerarmos que, a segurança humana constitui o bem estar do individuo, traduzida na liberdade do medo e das carências. Vale a pena recordarmos que nas ameacas a seguranca humana, incluimos o colapso financeiro e econonomico do Estado.<br /><br />A negação das especificidade sócio culturais - O slogan “ matar a tribo para se construir a nação” foi demasiadamente propalado na fase inicial de construção do Estado em Moçambique.<br /><br />Esta concepção ideológica preconizava a negação das especificidade dos grupos socioculturais, com vista a edificação de um Estado Nação. Um exemplo claro desta atitude é o discurso de Samora Machel, citado por Munslow (1985 :77-78) que ataca os "tribalistas" e "regionalistas", não descrevendo as origens do seu aparecimento como um fenómeno sociológico, mas sim como um fenómeno que possa ser morto pela vontade política.<br /><br />Na opinião de Muslow a argumentação de Samora centrada na convicção de que a guerra de libertação e o Poder já tinham posto fim ao raciocínio em termos de etnias<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10">[10]</a>, daí que o "tribalismo" e o "regionalizo" não tem quaisquer raízes na sociedade, tratando-se de somente de infiltração:<br /><br />“...estamos infiltrados. Há muita gente que sabe disto e não faz nada porque os bandidos tentam buscar apoio tribal. Mas a nossa luta matou a tribo. Foi a primeira coisa que nós matamos, porque a força do inimigo é o “tribalismo” Por isso não hesitamos em actuar contra os tribalistas, racistas e regionalistas. Matamos a tribo para que a nação pudesse nascer...” (Muslow 1985 :77-78)<br /><br />Eliminando o direito a etnia e a tribo, Machel eliminava uma das principais fontes do legitimidade do Poder Popular.<br /><br />A marginalizarão de segmentos considerados elites de certos micro-espaços em benefício de outras, contribuiu para facilitar a instrumentalização destas, tanto por interesses externos como por elites internas ávidas de poder e recursos. A construção do Estado, alicerçada na política de distrução das identidades étnica e tribal, implicou a desvalorização do poder religioso, moral ou espiritual de diversas elites locais. Esta política ameaçava valores. Tal como afirmamos no principio, em situações de opressão, discriminação, privação e isolamento, a defesa preservação de valores leva a comportamentos defensivos e agressivos. O caso de Mocambique com o elevado apoio de elites locais a RENAMO, durante a guerra de desestabilizacao, reflecte a revolta a politica adoptada pelo Estado.<br /><br />Enquanto o sistema político e o Estado garantiam segurança pessoal e social não houve problemas mas, quando o sistema político e o Estado moderno deixaram de Poder garantir segurança pessoal ou social, a população tenta estabelecer e consolidar as suas estratégias tradicionais de sobrevivência que se baseiam-se nos princípios organizativos da sociedade tradicional, nos laços familiares e na responsabilidade mútua pela sociedade local (Baptista Lundim:1992: 5).<br /><br />Baptista Lundin (op. cit.) acrescenta que a recorrência aos sistemas de organização social baseado na tradição não foi somente resultado das consequências catastróficas da guerra. Ela tem também origem na forma de governação adoptada pela FRELIMO, em que a nível da educação, as línguas locais são reprimidas e as práticas religiosas tradicionais e suas cerimónias são definidas como superstição que tem que ser combatidas.<br /><br />Posto, isto podemos inferir que a negação da liberdades culturais, remeteu as populações a uma situação insegurança humana, na medida em que esta acção privava as populações do direito de satisfação da sua necessidade básica, a privação desta liberdade resultara na insegurança humana. Vale a pena reordarmos uma vez mais que a privacao das liberdades culturais e religiosas e uma ameaca a seguranca humana.<br /><br />A exclusão da autoridade tradicional dos círculos de tomada de decisão - Nas sociedades tradicionais africanas as boas relações mútuas entre os membros da mesma família, clã ou grupo étnico constituem a base do sistema. No entanto, o Estado colonial português, com a exploração económica colonial, destruiu os traços característicos da reciprocidade pré-colonial. Para compensar os cidadãos, eles foram autorizados a conservar o direito a partes da sua cultura, tradições e práticas religiosas. O régulo tornou-se fiel da balança entre a legitimidade e a opressão colonial. A sua capacidade para fazer este equilíbrio tornou decisiva para o grau de legitimidade dos Estado colonial aos olhos da população (Abrahamsson e Nilsson, 1998:253-256).<br /><br />A transformação da FRELIMO, em 1977, em partido de vanguarda Marxista-Leninista, no III Congresso, contribuiu para a eliminação definitiva de qualquer possibilidade de integração da autoridade tradicional nos círculos de tomada de decisão. Tal como afirmam Abrahamsson e Nilsson :<br /><br />“a primeira tomada de medida foi a destituição dos administradores distritais portugueses. Entretanto, o distrito continuou a ser o nível administrativo mais baixo do aparelho do Estado e a FRELIMO considerava de muita importância ser representada a esse nível por pessoas que fossem da sua confiança política, assim autoridade tradicional foi abolida por decreto e no seu lugar foram colocados os comités locais do partido”. (Abrahamsson e Nilsson 1998 : 253)<br /><br />A FRELIMO ao eliminar a autoridade tradicional, eliminou uma das fontes de legitimidade e impulsionou a prática de cerimónias tradicionais ilegais, o que superficialmente parecia quebrar as ligações também com outra fonte de legitimidade. Abrahamsson e Nilsson afirmam que :<br /><br />“ Apôs a independência, o exercício religioso foi declarado como actividade privada cuja prática só deveria ter lugar no âmbito familiar. As práticas religiosas públicas em diferentes comunidades religiosas deixaram de ser possíveis. No entanto a prática religiosa tradicional não foi definida como religião com o mesmo significado que as outras . As suas cerimónias com ligação a fertilidade da terra e pluviosidade eram consideradas como superstição. Visto que a superstição era inimiga declarada da modernização e do racionalismo devia ser combatida” (Abrahamsson e Nilsson 1998:255).<br /><br />Para a população local, no entanto, não desapareceu a legitimidade do papel do régulo como portador de conhecimentos sobre as tradições locais. Essa legitimidade continuou a existir como uma corrente forte em todas as camadas populacionais.<br /><br />O facto de a FRELIMO ter ignorado a força dessa corrente faz com que se tenha perdido a possibilidade de ligação com os princípios da legitimidade das decisões políticas sobre a organização da produção de distribuição dos recursos sociais, que guiavam a população no seu julgamento sobre as medidas introduzidas pelo novo poder estatal.<br /><br />Tal como afirma Weimer (2002:55-80) “as guerras civis, rebeliões e revoluções podem ser interpretadas como manifestações de uma parte significativa da população contra as instituições estabelecidas”, porque não reconhece a legitimidade e/ou a eficácia de algumas ou de todas as instituições do Estado. A rebeldia contra as instituições do Estado é um dos factores que explica que a guerra se tenha estendido a todo território apesar da redução significativa do apoio material externo que a RENAMO sofreu na segunda metade da década de 80.<br /><br />Finalmente podemos concluir que as opções político-económicas da FRELIMO, logo após a Independência tiveram a curto e médio prazo efeitos políticos, económicos e sobretudo sociais adversos na medida em que remeteram as populacoes do Estado a uma situação de insegurança humana generalizada. Tal insegurança resultou principalmente das políticas de exclusão e privações que predominavam o modelo de governação adoptado. Longe de incluir a governação da FRELIMO excluía política, económica, cultural e socialmente diversos extractos da sociedade na medida em que negava as diversas especificidades e privava as populações dos seus direitos políticos, culturais e económicos. Este modelo longe de levar ao desenvolvimento remetia-as cada vez maior pobreza, contraria a expectativa de bem estar e liberdades como resultado da independência.<br /> A exclusão a nível interno, resultou no descontentamento de lideranças o que facilitou a penetração externa do apartheid para a desestabilizacao remetendo a população e o Estado a uma situação de insegurança, resultante da guerra de desestabilizacao, que para alem das mortes destruiu as infraestruturas tidas como fundamentais para o desenvolvimento do pais.<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">[1]</a> Uso sistemático de violência para forçar mudanças sociais políticas e legais .<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2">[2]</a> A derrota do capitalismo na África Austral significava para a África do Sul e para a Rodésia a queda dos respectivos regimes de minoria branca vigentes.<br /><br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3">[3]</a> A ocidente estava a Namíbia, ocupada pela África do Sul que por sua vez fazia fronteira com a colónia portuguesa Angola, norte fazia fronteira com a colónia britânica Rodésia e a oriente com a colónia portuguesa Moçambique.<br /><br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4">[4]</a> Front Line States – Organização dos Países da Linha da Frente composto por Tanzânia, Moçambique, Zâmbia, Botswana e Angola.<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5">[5]</a> Importa recordar que frequentemente a noção de Segurança Nacional tem sido usada como um princípio autoritário de justificação de práticas políticas<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6">[6]</a> O investigador sul-africano, Deon Geldenhus citado por Hanlon, (1986:29), define a Desestabilização como um método político para obrigar mudanças sem necessariamente ter de derrubar o governo. Isto significa que podem ou não incluir mudanças estruturais mais certamente visam mudanças fundamente ou uma reorientação política, sendo que o objectivo principal do desestabilizador é plenamente político.<br /><br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7">[7]</a> Dificilmente conseguiria ir para o ocidente devido aos compromissos Portugal com a OTAN.<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8">[8]</a> Juiz Conselheiro Teodato Hunguana “ Da Liberdade de imprensa e da Eventual Revisão da lei de Imprensa” . comunicação apresentada por ocasião dos 80 anos do jornal notícias, 14/04/2006<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9">[9]</a> Num certo sentido, os grupos dinamizadores foram órgãos revolucionários, que tomaram o poder local quando o Estado colonial deixou de funcionar.<br /><br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10">[10]</a> Segundo John Hutchinson e Antony Smith, citados por Malaquias (2003:96) etnia ou grupo étnico é um grupo populacional humano com mitos de ancestral comum, memória histórica partilhada, um ou mais elementos de cultura comum, uma ligação com um território e sentido de solidariedade entre, no mínimo alguns dos seus membros.<br /> Para Magode, etnicidade é um conceito que envolve muitas dimensões, podendo ser um fenómeno de identidade étnica, no sentido em que divide os limites espaciais e sócio culturais de uma comunidade.<br /> Para Magode, a etnicidade é considerada um critério de classificação e de ordenamento de formações sócio-culturais em termos de identidade social e que pode, de igual modo, traduzir-se em reacções de contestação ou reivindicativas de um relacionamento inter-étnico equilibrado num determinado sistema de relações políticas (Ibid.)<br /> Sob esta perspectiva, Magode considera ainda que a etnicidade recorre a sistemas de símbolos étnicos, traduz um consciência colectiva e serve de instrumento de diferenciação de posicionamentos políticos com consequências inevitáveis no relacionamento inter-étnico.NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-30915748852417570882008-11-26T04:17:00.000-08:002008-11-26T04:21:19.625-08:00CAPÍTULO -4 : O PROCESSO DE DEMOCRATIZAÇÃO EM MOÇAMBIQUE : QUE CONTRIBUTOS PARA A SEGURANÇA HUMANAOs processos de democratização em Africa : Que contributos para segurança humana - o caso de Moçambique<br /><br />Arão Dava<br /><br />A democratização em Moçambique enquadra-se no contexto internacional dos processos de democratização iniciados no fim da Guerra Fria. Tal como afirmamos citando Picasso, (2003:67), com fim da Guerra Fria., alteraram os tradicionais interesses e a necessidade de bloquear a expansão comunista em África. Assim o colapso da URSS, a “desideologização” das relações internacionais e os avanços tecnológicos obrigaram o ocidente a reformular os seus interesses no continente.<br /><br />Com efeitos terminada a Guerra Fria, os regimes de partido único africanos, tais como a FRELIMO em Mocambique, como forma de sobreviveram ao novo contexto internacional iniciam com processo de abertura política e económica realizando em primeiro lugar eleições com forma de reconquistar a sua legitimidade interna e externa para governar. E assim que em muitos Estados africanos se iniciam os processos de democratização.<br /><br />Importa recordar, que como temos estado a defender, a democratização implica a passagem de um regime não democrático para o democrático. Por outro lado, a democratização e um processo que consiste no alargamento das oportunidades de contestação através de oligarquias concorrenciais e no alargamento das oportunidades de participação do cidadão na vida política, económica, social e cultural do Estado com o fim último de garantir a liberdade do medo e das carências, a paz social efectiva e o desenvolvimento. Em Africa, em particular estes processo sao influenciados tanto por factores internos como externos, tal como a seguir veremos tendo em conta, o caso moçambiano.<br /><br />4.1- FACTORES EXTERNOS<br /><br />O fim da Guerra Fria - O fim da Guerra Fria que significou o fim da bipolaridade político-económica do mundo e emergência da supremacia de valores ocidentais. De um modo geral esta situação produziu impactos nas Relações Internacionais que consubstanciam-se em :<br /><br />- A redução legitimidade do socialismo, entanto que modelo político económico viável e da capacidade da URSS em dar apoio aos seus aliados. Estas situação fizeram com que países aliados da URSS (como Moçambique) começassem a avaliar a possibilidade de optar por novos aliados (Chabal, 1998:148).<br />- Criação de condições para o aumento da pressão ocidental para a implementação de reformas segundo o modelo democrático liberal. Neste quadro os doadores internacionais começam a exigir como condição de ajuda, a implementação de programas de ajustamento estrutural e reformas democráticas (Kpuendeh, 1992:2).<br /><br />A ascensão e a consolidação de novas teorias explicativas do desenvolvimento - A ascensão e a consolidação de novas teorias explicativas do desenvolvimento de inspiração neoclássica que vieram influenciar à maioria das instâncias de decisão nacional e internacional. Numa altura em muitos países subdesenvolvidos debatiam-se com a crise da dívida, a alternativa foi aceitar com as condições de liberalização sem as quais não se poderia aceder aos créditos para a ajuda ao desenvolvimento. Embora esta doutrina já vigorasse e Moçambique tenha aderido as reformas ainda no período da Guerra Fria, tornou-se evidente no período pós Guerra Fria. A nova corrente de pensamento sobre o desenvolvimento de África entendia que o problema do atraso económico e social, com o qual o terceiro mundo, em geral, e Moçambique, em particular, se deparavam, não tinha outra justificação se não razões de ordem interna conjugados com uma demasiada influência de um Estado de Partido único e uma economia centralmente planificada.<br /><br />Nova visão da Organização da Unidade Africana - A democratização em Moçambique e também influenciada pela nova visão da O.U.A, também resultante do Fim da Guerra Fria. De facto, com o fim da Guerra Fria a O.U.A demonstra mudanças na ênfase que dava á descolonização e começa a dar prioridade a aspectos como, liberdades políticas, recuperação económica e boa governação.<br /><br />Na XXVI cimeira da O.U.A em 1990, o secretario geral desta organização continental, Salim Ahmed Salim (Kpundeh, 1992:4) manifestou-se a favor da democratização, defendendo que “África não pode ignorar o consenso global sobre os valores da democracia, mas a democracia deve ter um crescimento interno” (Kpundeh, 1992:4)<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">[1]</a>. No ano seguinte, em 1991, na cimeira dos chefes de estado da O.U.A (1991), o então presidente da Nigéria, Ibrahim Bambagida concentrou o seu discurso na questão da democracia. Ele defendeu que no processo de desenvolvimento, os africanos enfrentam simultaneamente os agudos problemas de reestruturação económica e criação de instituições livres e democráticas para a expressão social. Bambagida disse na ocasião aos seus homólogos que “ devem reconhecer que nos tempos actuais é preciso reexaminar o conceito e pratica do poder e liderança no continente…a democracia não e apenas uma opção atractiva mas racional….” (Kpundeh, ibid.) <a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2">[2]</a><br /><br />A queda do regime do apartheid - o aspecto mais importante a nível externo foi a queda do regime do apartheid. Com o fim da GF, o regime do apartheid já não podia mais, carregar a bandeira de anticomunismo, daí que as pressões no sentido de adopção do modelo democrático liberal tenham se intensificado. Assim verificam-se mudanças significativas a partir do novo governo de De Klerke.<br /><br />Em termos de inserção internacional, De Klerk, encerrou a Total Nacional Strategy, dos "securocratas" do governo de Botha e formulou, em 1989 os princípios chave do New Diplomacy. O referidos princípios entre outros, destacavam os seguintes aspectos:<br /><br />A África do Sul deveria ser uma potência regional, mas o seu Poder tinha limites.<br />A África do Sul dependia de relações amigáveis com os seus vizinhos.<br />A política regional sul-africana deveria ser implementada com instrumentos não coercivos.<br /><br />Ao acabar com a sua política de desestabilização, a África do sul abria espaço para que as necessárias reformas em Moçambique fossem levadas a cabo, isto e, o Estado moçambicano deixa de sofrer pressão da Guerra passando a preocupar-se muito com outros aspectos da segurança humana como a garantia de liberdades aos seus cidadãos.<br /><br />Finalmente podermos inferir que o ambiente internacional Influenciou substancialmente o processo de democratização em Moçambique. Tal como verificamos o Fim da Guerra Fria, arrastou consigo a possibilidade de opções político económicas que não fossem democráticas liberais, isto e a abriu espaço para a pressão ocidental para a democratização dos países africanos. Aliadas a este facto, estavam as teorias explicativas de desenvolvimentos que devido as experiências amargas da orientação socialista levaram a muitos países como Moçambique que viviam momentos de crise interna a se democratizarem, num processo muito influenciado pelas instituições de Bretton Woods. Tudo isto aconteceu numa altura em que em África a organização continental, O.U.A, também começar a adoptar oficialmente pela democracia como modelo. Todo este processo foi fundamental para a África do Sul, parasse de carregar a bandeira de anticomunista e se democratizasse. A democratização da África do Sul, permitiu que RENAMO e a FRELIMO sentassem a mesa de negociações e tomassem decisões importantes sobre o futuro de Moçambique como um pais democrático.<br /><br />4.2 – OS FACTORES INTERNOS<br /><br />O fracasso da estratégia de desenvolvimento - a nível económico o processo de democratização em Moçambique terá sido influenciado pelo fracasso da estratégia de desenvolvimento adoptada, que não conseguia responder aos problemas económicos do país.<br /><br />De facto, a degradação da situação socio-económica e a crise da dívida impeliram a FRELIMO a busca de novas alianças no mundo ocidental ao mesmo tempo que a economia política internacional modificou as regras de jogo e as condições de cooperação. Uma das condições prévias para a renegociações das antigas dívidas e para o acesso aos novos créditos foi a participação nas instituições de Bretton Woods e a realização do programa de ajustamento estrutural.<br /><br />No período entre 1984 e 1985, a economia moçambicana atingiu um estado de crise insustentável. O esgotamento de recursos nacionais, aliado ao facto de maior parte dos credores serem do ocidente, tornou inevitável a filiação do pais no sistema de Bretton Woods, tornando-se, em 1984, membro do Banco Mundial e do FMI. Três anos mais tarde podia começar um programa de reabilitação económica e social (Magode;1996:92).<br /><br />Com efeito, depois de uma economia centralmente planificada, em 1985 dão-se os primeiros passos para a liberalização, o que leva a transição. Visando reverter as tendência negativas do crescimento económico através de um reajustamento estrutural, em 1987 é introduzido o Programa de Reabilitação Económica (PRE) e em 1990, o Programa de Reabilitação Económica e Social, (PRES). O ajustamento estrutural em Moçambique significou, a introdução do livre comércio, desregularização e a privatização. O governo liberalizou os preços, praticamente terminou a sua gestão do mercado, cortou o seu orçamento nos sectores sociais e fez mudanças nas políticas de saúde e educação.<br /><br />Sem pretendermos totalmente inferir algo, podemos dizer que o tipo de ajuda que recebia e o tipo de reformas que introduziu são demonstrativos de que o país começava a ser pelo pensamento económico liberal que mais tarde viria a ser oficialmente adoptado.<br /><br />Necessidade de responder a pressão interna e as mudanças internacionais – Internamente, a pressão e as distorções da Guerra de desestabilização, que tinha aniquilado todo o projecto de desenvolvimento, paralisado a actividade produtiva e promovido a incapacidade do governo de defender o cidadão contra a violência física incluindo as matanças desenfreadas.<br /><br />Aquelas situações corroíam totalmente a legitimidade do Estado. A única solução seria a reconstrução económica e política em condições novas e modificadas. Tal modificação passava necessariamente pela satisfação das exigências adicionais.<br /><br />Essas problemáticas levaram a RENAMO a fugir um pouco da sua natureza desestabilizadora. Nessa época Afonso Dlakama citado por Cline dizia que a sua a guerra tinha como objectivo provocar mudanças, afirmando que “...o meu objectivo é de forçar a FRELIMO a fazer alterações políticas respeitantes ao sistema democrático de governo. Quando houver uma garantia de mudança porá cobro a guerra ...” Cline (1989 :29). Segundo Lalá e Ostheimer, (2003:6-7) o governo da FRELIMO pressionado por estas exigências faz de tudo para que o Estado garantisse :<br /><br />1. Direitos básicos individuais, as liberdade de crença, opinião e associação;<br />2. Pluralismo partidário;<br />3. Independência dos tribunais;<br />4. Eleições livres e secretas; e<br />5. Eleição directa do presidente da República.<br /><br />Assim paralelamente ao programa de reabilitação económica foi tomada uma série de medidas com o objectivo de adaptar a constituição do país ao ajustamento e liberalização económica. Durante o seu Quinto Congresso, em 1989 a FRELIMO separou o Estado do partido e retirou as palavras Marxismo-Leninismo dos estatutos do partido. No ano seguinte, em 1990, o parlamento adopta a nova constituição, que introduz o Estado de Direito e os pressupostos incontornáveis da democracia, tais como : a separação de poderes entre o executivo, o legislativo e o judicial, a supremacia do principio de legalidade, o sufrágio universal periódico, directo e secreto, liberdade de constituição e filiação partidária e a liberdade de imprensa (Hunguana, 2006:5).<br /><br />Com esta constituição, Moçambique muda do nome, passando de República Popular de Moçambique para a República de Moçambique, e o multipartidarismo é introduzido. Na constituição anterior implicava que o presidente da FRELIMO era automaticamente presidente da República, mas as nova constituição reza que o presidente da República deve ser eleito em eleições gerais.<br /><br />A constituição abole pela segunda vez a pena de morte em Moçambique<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3">[3]</a>. Ela afirma que a república de Moçambique é uma economia de mercado. Após debate na Assembleia Popular e uma adenda, o texto final diz que no âmbito da economia de mercado o Estado deverá ter uma função reguladora e promover o bem-estar social.<br /><br />A adopção da constituição de 1990, veio responder a algumas destas reivindicações, dai que, o AGP assinado com a RENAMO serviu para a subscrição das reformas políticas já estabelecidas pelo governo e para o estabelecimento do quadro para a transição democrática em Moçambique criando as condições para paz e reconciliação.<br /><br />As reformas políticas resultaram do reconhecimento de que a situação interna e os problemas que na altura se viviam deveriam ser solucionados dentro do fim do sistema fechado, prevalecente até 1990. Ademais, nessa altura o liberalismo político ganhava com as mudanças iniciais na URSS e, posteriormente, com o fim da Guerra Fria e a Nova ordem Mundial que ditavam a democratização, situação que o país não esteve alheio nem passou despercebido. <br /><br />4.3– AS IMPLICAÇÕES DA DEMOCRATIZAÇÃO PARA A SEGURANÇA HUMANA <br /><br />Em primeiro lugar, a democratização é um processo que, em geral se refere a transição de qualquer outro regime para o democrático. Assim assuminos que estamos a sair de uma situacao de um regime nao democratico para o democratico. Este processo consiste no alargamento das oportunidades de contestação através de oligarquias concorrenciais e no alargamento das oportunidades de participação do cidadão na vida política, económica, social e cultural do Estado, num processo que nos ira permitir a liberdade do medo e das carências, o que significa por outras palavras o alcance da paz social efectiva e do desenvolvimento, isto e a segurança humana.<br /><br />A Paz Social efectiva e o desenvolvimento humano sustentável dependem no entanto, do reconhecimento de factores tais como democracia, direitos humanos, desenvolvimento económico, sustentabilidade do meio ambiente e estabilidade militar tendo em conta o homem como referência primária da Segurança (Solomon e Cilliers, 1996:6).<br /><br />Gastil (op. cit.) citado por Sitoe (2006:161) defende que nas actuais circunstâncias históricas ao contrário do período anterior a segunda metade do Século. XX, a implantação da democracia pluripartidária constitui factor base para que o país caminhe rumo a boa governação e ao desenvolvimento e consequentemente a Segurança Humana.<br /><br />Isto significa que a democracia é uma condições sine qua non para o desenvolvimento, entendido como redução da pobreza e da exclusão social, económica, culturas ou política. Alias tal como já tivemos a oportunidade de afirmar Leftwich (op. cit.) citado por Weimer (2002:80) considera que existe uma correlação significativa entre um Estado Democrático orientado para o desenvolvimento e o próprio desenvolvimento sócio-económico quantitativo e qualitativo neste Estado.<br /><br />Em Moçambique as reformas levadas a cabo, tanto a nível político como económico resultante das pressões internas e externas culminaram com o Acordo Geral de Paz<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4">[4]</a>, AGP, pondo fim a Guerra de desestabilização que constituía um dos factores fundamentais de segurança humana. Por outro lado, sob ponto de vista político as reformas abriram espaço para a remoção do monopólio por parte do partido FRELIMO do debate e exercício político, permitindo assim a participação do cidadão, das sociedades, dos partidos e dos meios de comunicação social antes excluídos pela sistema de governação do partido de vanguarda. Sob ponto de vista económico, as reformas trouxeram consigo a remoção do papel do Estado na economia, facto que veio a permitir que o pais se desenvolvesse de forma sustentável, com os cidadãos a participarem livremente na actividade económica. Estas reformas, aliadas ao fim da guerra, tiveram como resultado a liberdade do medo e a criação de condições para a luta contra as carências, isto é para a paz social efectiva e para o desenvolvimento.<br /><br />Tal como definimos, segurança humana resulta da liberdade do medo, ou seja no alcance da paz social efectiva e da liberdade das carências, isto e, do desenvolvimento sócio económico sustentável. O processo de democratização, como o culminar das reformas, resultou nas seguintes dimensões de segurança humana :<br /><br />1 – A DIMENSÃO POLÍTICO-SOCIAL - A vigência do sistema de partido único tinha criado condições para a existência de vários grupos entre os quais , os descontes da FRELIMO que tinham sido presos ou acusados, os exilados opositores da ideia de partido único, os académicos do pós-independência, que constituíam oposição e que pretendiam de alguma maneira formar os seus próprios partidos.<br /><br />O processo de democratização, permitiu que nos finais da década de 80, um novo Estado fosse repensado para ser construído no estrito respeito pela lei. Neste sentido, o país deixa de ser dirigido por um regime ditatorial e passa a ser dirigido por um regime democrático. Assim, algumas realidades novas emergiram :<br /><br />1. Deixa de haver uma filosofia ou ideologia exclusiva e liderante, isto é passa a ser reconhecido o estatuto específico da oposição e os governados podem optar entre vários modelos de organização da sociedade.<br />2. Deixa de existir um aparelho destinado a impor ideologia.<br />3. São garantidos de forma efectiva os direitos pessoais do cidadão<br />4. O cidadão participa livremente na designação dos governantes<br />5. Existe um controlo do exercício das funções dos governos.<br /><br />A nova constituição trás um Estado de direito com poderes executivo, legislativo e judiciário a funcionar separadamente e interagindo com cidadãos responsáveis e participantes, num sistema o mais inclusivo e abrangente possível, isto è virado para o indivíduo permitindo-lhe liberdade que antes não tinha e consequentemente removendo lhe os obstáculos limitativos e promovendo uma maior segurança humana.<br /><br />Por outro lado, Diogo, (2002:12) refere que com a nova constituição desenvolve-se em Moçambique um Estado não todo poderoso responsável por prestar todo o tipo de serviços aos cidadãos, mas na busca de conjugação com o lado civil de uma sociedade activa e participativa, com um debate aberto, como valioso instrumento para uma acomodação pacífica e resolução de diferentes opiniões.<br /><br />A nova constituição de 1990, parcialmente ajudada pelo AGP de 1992, trouxe dois elementos fundamentais para a segurança humana, por um lado, renova o contracto social, isto é os moçambicanos juntos reconhecem que apenas um governo pode/deve ser legítimo, e por outro lado concordam que Moçambique é (deve ser) um Estado democrático liberal, independentemente dos governos (Mazula, 2000:44).<br /><br />A constituição de 1990, reforçada pelo A.G.P. estabelecem regras de jogo político, no sentido de que o acesso ao poder é feita com base em eleições democráticas, tendo se assumido a democracia multipartidária como sistema político.<br /><br />A democratização permitiu por um lado, que FRELIMO se legitimasse como força política dominante nas várias esferas da vida moçambicana [ é preciso recordar que a falta de legitimidade do governo provocou a rebeldia de certos segmentos da população contra o Estado provocando um conflito Estado-indivíduo]. Por outro lado, permitiu que a RENAMO e outros movimentos políticos clandestinos se transformassem em partidos políticos. Assim, os militantes e dirigentes destes partidos e movimentos políticos libertam se do medo, isto è manifestam livremente as suas opções políticas. As diferenças políticas passam a ser manifestadas no quadro da competição política nos partidos políticos, Assembleias Municipais e Assembleia da Republica (Weimer, 2002:61).<br /><br />Outro aspecto importante é a descentralização pensada como resposta tanto para a melhor integração do país, como para a melhor participação do cidadão na gestão de assuntos públicos a todos os níveis. Isto permitiu trazer o cidadão para mais perto do Estado e das suas instituições (Baptista-Lundin, 2002:127)<br /><br />O processo de democratização permite igualmente o surgimento da sociedade civil<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5">[5]</a> com cidadãos a juntarem-se e a trabalharem para atingir certos fins e, ao lado das acções do Estado, alcançar o desenvolvimento do país. Estas associações estão geralmente engajadas em sectores sociais específicos e congregam, muitas vezes, ex-governantes que ao deixarem o executivo, legislativo ou outro cargo no aparelho do Estado criam ONG´s para servir a sociedade através do associativismo(ibid. - 118).<br /><br />No que toca a sociedade civil, verificamos que actividades anteriormente proibidas ou vistas como de grande desconfiança são exercidas livremente e de forma aberta, levando ao surgimento de diversos movimentos e organizações da sociedade civil, ( ONG´s, confissões religiosas, autoridades tradicionais, sindicatos, organizações académicas, organizações cívico-políticas, grupos femininos, associações de direitos humanos e meios de comunicação independentes). Hoje, a sociedade civil tem promovido actividades relevantes para a consolidação da paz e da democracia. O novo cenário de abertura à sociedade civil vem quebrar uma prática de participação cívica que existia até a data somente através do canal partidário (FRELIMO), com as chamadas organizações democráticas de massas, às quais alguns cidadãos eram excluídos.<br /><br />Assim, podemos inferir que, a democratização consubstanciada na nova constituição, libertou os cidadãos do medo e abriu caminho para a paz social efectiva, isto porque foi criado um novo quadro legal que possibilitava a livre manifestação política, religiosa, ou cultural. Aos cidadãos era já permitido criar partidos políticos, pertencer a qualquer religião ou manifestar-se culturalmente. A Este novo quadro político que estava entre as expectativas do cidadão como resultado da independência e que tinha sido privado pela FRELIMO contribuiu significativamente para a segurança humana. Vale a pena uma vez mais recordarmos que a privacao os direitos religiosos, politicos e cultrais constituem ameaca a seguranca humana e que a democracia e um aspecto fundamental da seguranca humana.<br /><br />3 - A DIMENSÃO ECONÓMICA – Ao adoptar as reformas económicas, o Estado não só abriu a economia a agentes diversos, como libertou a iniciativa empreendedora dos agentes económicos, ficando com uma função reguladora e promotora do bem-estar social.<br /><br />A introdução do reajustamento estrutural no país, através do qual o livre comércio, a liberalização dos preços de bens e serviços e as privações galvanizaram o sentido de liberdade e criação de riqueza. A passagem da economia planeada para a economia de mercado agradou a maior parte dos actores económicos, que foram reprimidos durante cerca de quinze anos. Vale a pena recordar que a guerra de desestabilização consistiu na aniquilação da produção e de outras actividades económicas, factos que viriam a aumentar o nível de desenvolvimento com impacto na segurança humana.<br /><br />Todavia, o relançamento da produção através do programa de reabilitação aliado ao fim da Guerra que reanimou a actividade económica rural, que apesar de não terem resolvido os problemas de bem estar, contribuíram pelo menos para um melhor desempenho económico com impacto no nível de vida e na redução das carências, factos inequivocamente demonstrativos de uma direcção rumo à segurança humana.<br /><br />Referimo-nos no principio que o colapso financeiro e economico constitui uma ameaca a seguanca humana, com o processo de democratizacao acompanhado das reformas politicas e economicas o pais tem Estado a registar assianlaveis indices de crescimento economico entre os seis e os oito porcento.<br /><br />4 - DIMENSAO CULTURAL – Ao reconhecer e valorizar os direitos culturais e religiosos, a constituição de 1990 abriu espaço para que as populações se reconciliassem, perdoassem e se purificassem dos efeitos do “sistema político e económico” e da Guerra .<br /><br />Depois de um relacionamento tenso e problemático imediatamente após a independência nacional, o Estado iniciou um processo de aproximação à igreja atraves da devolução dos bens anteriormente nacionalizados. O factco contribui para que a igreja se envolvesse uma vez mais em instituições de educação e saúde. Aparentemente banal, estes factos levaram a mudança de atitude das comunidades que deixaram de interpretar o Estado como seu inimigo, contribuindo consequentemente para o aumento da legitimidade do Estado e para o sentimento de maior segurança das comunidades.<br /><br />Ao adoptar a política de não reconhecimento da autoridade tradicional e das suas práticas o governo da FRELIMO (logo o Estado) perdia uma das principais fontes de legitimidade, facto que fez com que muitos dos detentores do Poder Tradicional participassem activamente nas actividades da RENAMO e outros tomaram atitude neutra, apesar de a FRELIMO nunca ter sido sua simpatia. Com as reformas políticas verifica-se hoje a nível dos distritos maior interacção entre os administradores e os representantes do poder local. Além disso eles (os detentores do Poder Local) já podem exercer livremente as diferentes cerimónias tradicionais, sendo hoje inclusive reconhecida como agente de mobilização política, com vista ao aproveitamento da sua legitimidade junto das populações em benefício dos partidos políticos.<br /><br />Com as reformas políticas é reconhecido o papel simbólico da autoridade tradicional, como “guardiã da terra e garante da ordem social”, especialmente nas zonas rurais.<br /><br />Estes factores ajudam a reduzir o nível de descontentamento e aumentam a confiança e a satisfação das comunidades, o que ajuda a diminuir as “injustiças” e a aumentar os níveis de confiança ou de segurança humana. O mais importante nesta dimensao e a relatia liberdade das privacoes de que a populacao foi alvo.<br /><br />3 – A DIMENSÃO MILITAR - Mais do que cessar-fogo, o fim do Guerra de Desestabilização significou a paz social efectiva. Para Zacarias a paz pode ter vários sentidos entre eles justiça, estabilidade, tranquilidade e ainda ausência de violência (Zacarias,1999:144 –152).<br /><br />O fim da guerra e o início do processo de democratização tiverem também efeitos na gestão económica dos recursos do Estado. A economia de guerra impunha exigências de planificação e de intervenção estatal. A guerra desviou recursos necessários que mitigariam os efeitos da crise económica. A limitação material, financeira e humana impostas pela guerra diminuíram a capacidade do Estado em providenciar as necessidades básicas às populações. <br /><br />De acordo com Diogo, a Guerra, durante períodos prolongados, pode induzir a moldagem da capacidade humana, de infra estruturas institucionais e de outros activos para fim especifico de guerra, levando a atrofia de outras actividades (pacificas) e que concorrem para a elevação do bem-estar. Por outro lado, no país onde decorrem operações militares ou actos de Guerra fazem se sentir os seus efeitos destrutivos directos, como por exemplo, sobre a população gerando mutilações, deslocações e mortes, rotura e negação de instituições, destruição de infraestruturas, e outros activos privados e públicos (Diogo .2002:207).<br /><br />Este facto é demonstrativo de que o fim da violência (Guerra) concorre para uma melhor preocupação para a elevação do nível de bem estar, consequentemente para uma melhor busca e alcance da segurança humana.<br /><br />Posto isto, podemos seguramente estabelecer uma relação de causa efeito entre o processo de democratização e a segurança humana em Moçambique. O processo de democratizacao, trouxe para alem da sobrevivência física do homem, criou condicoes para a sua sobrevivencia social, cultural, económica. Assim questoes como colapso económico e financeiro, a degradação social e ambiental, o crime organizado, as pandemias, os problemas de ordem publica, a violência interna, a corrupção, entram na agenda das possiveis ameacas que podem levar a vulnerabilidade dos individuos das comunidades e do proprio Estado. O processo de democratização veio alarga as das oportunidades de contestação e participação do cidadão na vida política, económica, social e cultural do Estado o que conduziu ao fim da guerra e ao inicio do processo de desenvolvimento. Assim, o fim das guerra e a adopcao de uma nova constituicao democratica, significou a abertura de um caminho para a seguranca humana.<br /><br />4.4 - OS DESAFIOS DA DEMOCRATIZAÇÃO PARA UMA MAIOR SEGURANÇA HUMANA<br /><br />A democratização é sem dúvidas uma das condições fundamentais para a Segurança Humana. Tal como nos referimos citando pesquisadores canadianos, Regeir e Whelan (2004) a Segurança Humana è caracterizada por três condições básicas:<br /><br />1. É um conceito “holistico” que abrange todas as variadas fontes de insegurança individual incluindo as associadas a pobreza e a violência física.<br />2. Concentram-se nos direitos humanos dos indivíduos. Na verdade enfatiza o papel do governo como fonte de insegurança para os seus cidadãos.<br />3. Valoriza a sociedade civil como actor privilegiado, reduzindo assim, de forma implícita o papel do governo.<br /><br />O respeito a estas condições básicas passa necessariamente pela consolidação democrática. Dez anos após as primeiras eleições, Moçambique pode ser caracterizado como um país onde vigora uma democracia eleitoral, com eleições regulares, livres mais ou menos justas. No entanto, a consolidação das estruturas democráticas moçambicanas tem sido continuamente posta em causa por uma cultura caracterizada por estruturas neo-patrimonias e corrupção dentro do aparelho do Estado.<br /><br />Este facto, para além de possuir um impacto negativo no desenvolvimento (Segurança Humana), o qual requer instituições políticas estáveis e responsáveis, afecta de igual modo as relações entre a sociedade e o Estado, conduzindo a erosão do último - insegurança humana), (Ostheimer e Margraf, 2003: viii)<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6">[6]</a>. O USAID (2005) descreve Moçambique hoje, como sendo<br /><br />“uma democracia eleitoral, um regime monopartidario virtual, com um quadro legal sofisticado que é implementado selectivamente, uma economia nacional que transitou de um sistema socialista para um regime em que interesses políticos e empresariais estão estreitamente interligados”<br /><br />Tal como afirmamos acima, a democratização e um processo e Moçambique esta nesse processo caminhando de uma simples democracia eleitoral para uma democracia consolidada. Para nós, Moçambique não esta perante um regime monopartidario virtual mas perante uma oposição e sociedade civil ainda em consolidação. Assim face a esta fragilizada oposição, assiste-se a repetidas vitorias do mesmo partido FRELIMO perante a fragilizada sociedade civil incapaz de responsabilizar os governantes perante os governados.<br /><br />Em nossa opinião, o reforço da Segurança Humana como resultado da democratização (consolidação democrática) tem como maiores desafios os seguintes desafios:<br /><br />1 – SOB PONTO DO VISTA POLITICO-ECONOMICO<br /><br />1.1 - Promover um desenvolvimento inclusivo - Para que a democracia seja legitimada pelo povo, ela deve estar ao serviço do desenvolvimento. A propósito, L.Diamond (1990: 48) afirma que “ a democracia não será valorizada pelo povo, a menos que responde efectivamente os problemas sociais e económicos e proporcione o mínimo de ordem e justiça”.<br /><br />Grande parte das populações em países em desenvolvimento como Moçambique associa a democratização com à esperança de ver melhoradas as suas condições de vida. A tendência crescente da abstenção popular nos processos eleitorais em Moçambique<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7">[7]</a> poderá constituir um sinal da não legitimação da democracia. Se nas primeiras eleições em 1994, a participação popular foi de 77 %, dez anos depois, em 2004, a participação foi de cerca de 36 %.<br /><br />O processo de promoção de desenvolvimento inclusivo em Moçambique passa necessariamente pelo combate a pobreza<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8">[8]</a>. As privações de que sofrem os indivíduos em condições de pobreza são variadas e podem ser analisadas em várias abordagens que não opõem-se mas complementam-se<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9">[9]</a> (Vieira, 2005:3).<br /><br />Usando a abordagem de cabaz fixo, os resultados da incidência da pobreza são de 63.2 por cento. Estes resultados implicam que cerca de 11 milhões (mais de metade da população) viviam abaixo da linha de pobreza em 2003. Comparando os 61,3 % de incidência de pobreza as zonas urbanas com 64,1 % das zonas rurais poderíamos concluir que a pobreza continua a ser mais alta nas zonas rurais. Por outro lado a profundidade da pobreza afecta 25.8% da população moçambicana, sendo 25.6% nas zonas urbanas e 26.2 % nas zonas rurais.<br /><br />Usando o cabaz flexível da linha da pobreza total, constata-se que em 2002-2003 a pobreza em Moçambique é de 54,1 %. Tendo em conta esta abordagem constatamos que cerca de 10 milhões de pessoas ainda são pobres. O índice da profundidade da pobreza é de 20.5 %.<br /><br />A situação mais grave da pobreza de Moçambique è que, embora o crescimento económico seja sólido, a abrangência e transparência do orçamento, planificação e a definição do orçamento a médio prazo são fracas e a execução do orçamento, bem como a contabilidade e a prestação de contas apresentam graves deficiências o que põe em causa o combate a pobreza (USAID, 2004).<br /><br />1.2 - Proporcionar a resolução dos conflitos de interesses políticos e económicos - O Poder Político é um meio muitas vezes usado (nos países em desenvolvimento) para o acesso ao poder económico. Segundo o USAID (2005), em Moçambique os líderes do mundo dos negócios procuram aumentar a sua riqueza através de laços estreitos com a FRELIMO e também procuram influência e poder para si. Os dirigentes políticos tem amplas oportunidades de enriquecerem através de seus cargos oficiais devido a existência de leis incipientes sobre o conflito de interesses e a fiscalização limitada dos processos de aquisição do Estado.<br /><br />Devido ao sentimento de privação relativa, a democratização em alguns aspectos continua a não proporcionar a segurança humana necessária. Tal como tivemos a oportunidades de nos referir citando Festinger (1962 :262) a privação relativa constitui o fosso entre, por um lado, o que consideramos como sendo nosso direito ter, fazer, ser e por outro lado a nossa percepção sobre aquilo que outras pessoas, grupos de pessoas ou instituições nos permitem em termos de recursos e capacidades para satisfazer aquilo que assumimos como sendo nosso direito. A expectativa dos Moçambicanos era de que sua vida iria melhorar com o processo de democratização. Embora reconheçamo que a democratização seja um processo, achamos que o alargamento das oportunidades desenvolvimento do indivíduo devem ser aceleradas. Estas oportunidades não deverão se limitar na constituição, mas resultar na melhoria do bem estar do cidadão - objecto referencial de segurança -, isto e, o cidadão independemente da sua origem, filiação política, religiosa ou cultural deve ser beneficiário do processo de desenvolvimento ou seja deve gozar das mesmas oportunidades de desenvolvimento. Deste modo o processo de democratização estaria a resultar na segurança humana, na medida em que o cidadão estaria livre das carência.<br /><br />2 - SOB PONTO DE VISTA POLITICO-SOCIAL<br /><br />2.1 - Desenvolvimento de uma cultura nacional de confiança política - o que significa por outras palavras, promoção de uma cultura de confiança entre os intervenientes políticos nacionais no sentido de as eleições serem em primeiro lugar credibilizadas pelos próprios intervenientes tanto do partido no Poder, através da transparência, como da oposição, através da aceitação dos resultados.<br /><br />A cultura política não se limitará na aceitação dos resultados, mas deverá ter em conta os elementos centrais da democracia (concorrência e participação), a tolerância mútua dos intervenientes, a vontade dos principais actores em assumir compromissos, a capacidade dos partidos em formar coligações e a aceitação dos resultados das eleições por parte do(s) derrotados(s).<br /><br />A cultura política deverá significar o combate a certos elementos tradicionais, como a corrupção, “o favorecimento” e a politização das regiões, que constituem entre outros, elementos integrantes de uma cultura política que originam um impacto negativo em qualquer processo de democratização. Embora as sucessivas eleições tenham sido sempre declaradas “livres e justas” , elas são geralmente caracterizadas por problemas como(Lalá e Ostheimer, 2003:49):<br /><br />1. Disponibilização tardia dos fundos para a campanha eleitoral, a cobertura jornalísticas tendenciosa;<br />2. Uso de recursos do Estado por parte da FRELIMO<br />3. Problemas técnicos durante a contagem dos votos, reclamação dos resultados por parte da RENAMO (excluindo as eleições autárquicas de 1998, as quais RENAMO boicotou) (Lalá e Ostheimer, 2003:49).<br /><br />2.3 - Desenvolvimento de uma cultura de transparência e responsabilização na governação - A democratização deverá ser acompanhada pela cultura de transparência, responsabilização e integridade. Em Moçambique, a responsabilização do governo perante os cidadãos e perante a lei não é suficiente, uma situação é facilitada pela falta de uma fiscalização independente, por uma política acima da lei e pela falta de transparência.<br /><br />Embora existam algumas leis e mecanismos no papel, que constituem o quadro para a boa governação, na prática existem ou funcionam poucos mecanismos de controlo para que este quadro funcione de forma honesta, transparente e para o bem do público (USAID, 2006).<br /><br />A falta de transparência na governação e a fragilidade relativa da sociedade civil, da incapacidade de os cidadãos comuns responsabilizarem o governo que se sente mais responsabilizado pelos doadores dos quais depende do que dos cidadãos constituem obstáculos à governação.(USAID, ibid.).<br /><br />A falta de transparência e responsabilização remete o Estado ao perigo de "favoritismo", "patrimonialismo", "clientelismo", tráfico de influência, burlas e a corrupção (Mosse, 2004). O nível e o âmbito da corrupção em Moçambique constituem motivo de alarme. constituindo um sintoma das fragilidade a nível democrático e de governação. Esta fragilidade amplifica uma ameaça que tem potencial de minar o progresso futuro do desenvolvimento do pais. Consequentemente, o governo democrático e o progresso de Moçambique estão em risco (USAID, 2005), já que apesar das varias instituições de combate a corrupção terem sido criadas – Gabinete de combate a corrupção, Unidade anti-corrupcao, nenhum ou quase nenhum caso de destaque teve desfecho.<br /><br />Nos últimos vinte anos, a corrupção tende a alastrar-se em Moçambique, tendo agora atingido todos os sectores, funções e níveis do governo. Segundo Mosse (2004) no anterior regime, (ate finais da década de 80) em Moçambique a corrupção não era tolerada e a liderança política era vigorosa na punição dos que abusavam do bem público, possibilitando altos níveis de condenação moral, mesmo apesar dos fracos salários na função pública e uma carência generalizada dos bens de consumo de primeira necessidade.<br /><br />Dados do World Bank Institut (Instituto do Banco Mundial ) revelam que o controlo da corrupção em Moçambique em 2000 era de 46,8 % ( pior do que a media mundial de 29, 8 %), tendo passado em 2004 para 24, 6 %. Moçambique é também um dos piores a nível da região, da media regional de controlo de 30 % Moçambique situa se nos 24, 6 %. Estes dados revelam uma tendência negativa em direcção a uma corrupção mais enraizada em Moçambique<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10">[10]</a>.<br /><br />2.4 - O HIV/Sida - A HIV-SIDA, constitui uma ameaça grave para a Segurança Humana, se tivermos em conta que ela afecta os mais precioso recurso de que o país dispõe: o homem. No contexto moçambicano o grau de propagação bem como o estágio de maturidade da pandemia podem providenciar uma explicação provável. Embora não haja consenso entre economistas sobre o nível económico exacto da pandemia do HIV-SIDA, há concordância geral sobre a importância da dimensão temporal. Os óbitos e os efeitos de SIDA acumulam com o tempo, gerando um peso crescente e gradualmente reduzidas taxas de crescimento (IAF, 2002-2003).<br /><br />Num estudo que examina as perspectivas de crescimento económico para Moçambique, Arndt (2003) estima reduções médias no crescimento anual per-capita entre 0.3 e 1.0 no período de 1997-2010. Porém, implicações são ligeiras até a primeira metade do período (até 2003) e mais profundas na segunda metade (2003-2010). Para maioria das províncias ainda não passou o tempo suficiente para que os efeitos económicos sejam reconhecíveis (Arndt, 2003) .<br /><br />Mesmo nas províncias centrais onde estimativas demográficas disponíveis indicam que a pandemia já atingiu um estado avançado de maturidade, e onde a projecção do número de óbitos da SIDA tem estado a aumentar rapidamente nos anos antes de 2002-2003 ( e nos anos imediatamente a seguir) o número de óbitos acumulados, é relativamente baixo, comparado à projecção para 2010 (INE, 2002).<br /><br />A economia poderá declinar devido aos custos resultantes das diferentes intervenções na luta contra o SIDA. O impacto social e económico da epidemia vai continuar até um período superior a dez anos mesmo que a infecção pelo vírus desta epidemia fosse interrompida hoje (PEN de combate as DTS/HIV/SIDA, 2000-2002)<a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11">[11]</a>.<br /><br />2.5 - O Analfabetismo - Entre pessoas com mais de 15 anos, 53, 5 % eram analfabetas em 2002 (PNUD, 2004) das alfabetas, somente 4 por cento tem formação universitária e a maior parte, mora na capital Maputo.<br /><br />Os serviços educacionais são ineficientes principalmente para quem vive nas zonas rurais. A falta de material escolar (livros, cadernos, e esferográficas), a ausência de professores e as insuficiências tornam impossível o acesso a educação. Embora o ensino primário básico tenha sido declarado gratuito, tem havido cobranças de taxas com pretexto de manutenção e da acção social da escola. Como resultado, quase metade das crianças em idade escolar está fora do sistema de educação.<br /><br />Em dois mil e quatro, 60 % das crianças ingressaram no ensino primário, porém somente, 52 % chegaram a quinta classe (PNUD, 2004).<br /><br />Embora as oportunidades de contestação através dos partidos políticos seja constitucionalmente possível, o sistema esta bastante bipolarizado pela FRELIMO e RENAMO, que se vem mais como inimigos do que adversários.. Estas duas formações políticas monopolizam a governação desde o topo ate a base da governação privando vários extractos da sociedade da participar na vida político-social e económica do Estado. Esta situação e agravada pelo facto de as diferenças que conduziram a guerra entre os ex-beligerantes continuarem a dominar a agenda política dos dois maiores partidos em detrimento do cidadão, que acima nos referimos como objecto referencial de segurança. Face a este cenário, estamos perante uma sociedade civil, ainda frágil que não consegue impor uma cultura de responsabilização aos governantes.<br /><br />Esta situação e agravada pela fragilizada sociedade civil que não consegue impor uma cultura de responsabilização perante os governantes.<br /><br />3 - SOB PONTO DE VISTA POLITICO-CULTURAL<br /><br />3.1 - Gestão da diversidade cultural – compreender, analisar e melhorar a gestão das diferenças culturais, sociais e políticas e resolver o “ potencial conflito de lealdade” do indivíduo ao Estado e a Comunidade, são hoje desafios fundamentais e essenciais para reduzir a insegurança. A lealdade a família alargada e não o Estado, continua a providenciar o sistema básico de segurança em alguns casos resultando em comportamentos nepotismo, favoritismo em prejuízo do Estado (USAID,2005).<br /><br />Para além da universalidade de certos princípios, estas formas tem que ser enriquecidas por aspectos culturais específicos para contribuir para a formação do Estado e logo para a Segurança Humana(Mazula, 1994).<br /><br />De acordo com Baptista-Lundin (2002:114-115), numa situação de diversidade cultural a nação não existe para todos na totalidade do território nacional, ela adquire em cada todo cultural um aspecto de diversos elementos. E sendo assim, os indivíduos emprestam a lealdade primária às comunidades onde esta cultura lhes estrutura como indivíduos. Neste todo complexo para se construir um Estado sólido, estável e unitário, o poder da governação deve ser exercido dentro de parâmetros que, seguindo contornos universais, sejam reconhecidos como seus e apropriados equitativamente, por todos os indivíduos do território nacional.<br />Para Moçambique isto implica o reconhecimento do papel simbólico desempenhado pela autoridade tradicional como “ guardiã da terra e garante da ordem social” nas zonas rurais<br /><br />O desafio do Estado será o de aproximar-se cada vez mais da autoridade local sem transformar uma chefia comunitária em agente do Estado. A experiência colonial com os régulos mostra-se mais negativa que positiva, criando fissuras no seio das populações no entanto as suas negação foi também usada para a desestabilização entre 1976 a 1992 (Baptista-Lundin, 2002:114-115).<br /> As autoridades locais são vistas pelas comunidades como os promotores e guardiaos de segurança, independentemente da vontade do Estado. O Estado sairia mais a ganhar com o reconhecimento do poder dos lideres locais do pela tentativa de destruição ou exclusão. Através destes micro poderes os cidadãos das comunidades teriam nas comunidades uma forma de participação político, económica e cultural e garantindo deste modo a sua segurança humana.<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">[1]</a> “…Africa could not ignore de global consensus on the value of democracy, but democracy must be home grown”.<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2">[2]</a> “… must recognize that the time has now come to re examine the concept and practice of power and leadership on our continent …democracy is not only an attractive option but a rational one.”<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3">[3]</a> A FRELIMO aboliu a pena de morte aquando da independência em 1975, entretanto ela voltou a ser introduzida alguns anos depois, com a justificação de que a evolução da guerra e a criminalidade económica assim o exigiam Boletim AIM, Abril 1983 Maputo.<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4">[4]</a> Entre 1990 e Outubro de 1992 decorreram em Roma negociações de paz com assistência do governo italiano. Em Agosto de 1992, apôs um encontro em Roma, o presidente de Moçambique, Joaquim Chispando e o dirigente da RENAMO, Afonso Dlakama numa declaração conjunta, deram instruções no sentido de se chegar a um acordo de paz. O AGP viria a ser assinado no dia 4 de Outubro de 1992, em Roma. Foi estabelecido o dia da entrada em vigor do cessar-fogo, como sendo o dia da adopção pela Assembleia da República, do AGP, incorporando-o na lei moçambicana. Nestes dia iniciaria o desdobramento dos efectivos da ONU no território moçambicano para a verificação do cessar-fogo.<br /><br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5">[5]</a> Segundo, Chabal (1994 citado por Baptista-Lundin 2002:117), sociedade civil consiste no que não é parte do Estado, mas também nos que se tornaram sem poder ou sem direitos. Não somente aldeões, pescadores, nómadas, membros dos diferentes grupos de idades, conselheiros de povoações e os moradores do caniço, mas também os profissionais, os políticos, padres, pastores, mullahs, intelectuais, oficiais militares e ainda todos os são ou se sentem sem acesso ao Estado.<br /><br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6">[6]</a> In Lalá e Ostheimer (op.cit).<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7">[7]</a> Dados oficiais revelam que nas primeiras eleições gerais de 1994, a abstenção foi de 13%, as primeiras autárquicas, 1998, 85%. Segundas eleições gerais, 85%. Segundas eleições gerais, 1999, 30.49, segundas eleições autárquicas 75%. Nas eleições gerais de 2004 63%.<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8">[8]</a> O Plano de Acção Para a Redução da Pobreza (PARPA I) adoptou o termo pobreza para se referir a incapacidade dos indivíduos de assegurar para si e os seus dependentes um conjunto de condições básicas mínimas para a sua subsistência e bem estar, segundo as normas da sociedade.<br /><br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9">[9]</a> Existem várias outras definições que mais abrangentes que é preciso ter em conta : Pobreza Absoluta ou Extrema – falta de rendimentos necessários para satisfazer as necessidades básicas, ou requerimentos calóricos mínimos; Pobreza Relativa – Falta de rendimento suficiente para satisfazer necessidades alimentares e não alimentares essenciais, de acordo com o rendimento médio da sociedade; Pobreza humana – falta de capacidades humanas básicas, como analfabetismo, má nutrição, esperança de vida reduzida, saúde materna fraca, incidência de doenças preveníveis, com medidas indirectas tais como acesso a bens, serviços e infra-estruturas necessárias para atingir capacidades humanas básicas – saneamento, água potável, educação, comunicações, energia, etc.<br /><br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10">[10]</a> Quanto menor o controlo pior serão os níveis de corrupção<br /><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11" href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4501432984982211786#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11">[11]</a> Plano Estratégico Nacional de Combate às DTS/HIV/SIDA em Moçambique, para o período 2000-2002NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-53159173441326624362008-11-26T04:16:00.000-08:002008-11-26T04:17:44.536-08:00CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAISOS PROCESSOS DE DEMOCRATICAÇÃO EM ÁFRICA QUE CONTRIBUTOS PARA A SEGURANÇA HUMAN - O CASO DE MOÇAMBIQUE<br /><br />6 - CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS<br /><br />Em jeito de consideracoes finais, podemos seguramente confirmar as hipoteses iniciais, uma vez que em primeiro lugar, o contexto geopolítico regional, as opções política do estado e o conflito de desestabilização tiveram reflexos negativos na segurança humana em Moçambique, em segundo lugar o fim da G.F e o processo de democratização contribuíram para a remoção de factores internos e externos da insegurança humana em Moçambique e em terceiro lugar a consolidação da democracia revela-se no caso em estudo uma condição relevante para a promoção da segurança humana em Moçambique.<br /><br />Após a independência, como forma de construção e consolidação do Estado moçambicano, a FRELIMO adoptou três medidas que vieram a influenciar a Segurança Humana em Moçambique :<br />- sob ponto de vista político, adoptou um sistema político-económico “ditatorial” ( através da aliança operário-camponesa” dirigida pelo partido único),<br />- sob ponto de vista económico, uma estratégia de desenvolvimento socialista e<br />- sob ponto de vista militar uma estratégia uma política de segurança “estato-céntrica” .<br /><br />Em termos políticos estas medidas vieram a significar a vigência de um sistema político ditatorial, devido a negação de direitos básicos como a liberdade de crença, opinião ou associação, a centralização do Poder num único partido, a ausência de independência dos tribunais.<br /><br />Sob ponto de vista económico a estratégia de desenvolvimento socialista, significou a centralização de todo Poder económico no Estado. Esta estratégia rapidamente demonstrou-se incapaz de resolver os problemas da população, com a pobreza a aumentar, as machambas e as empresas estatais a tornarem-se improdutivas, e a situação socio-económica degradar-se.<br /><br />Sob ponto de vista militar, Moçambique adoptou uma política de Segurança “estato-centrica” tendo como um dos principais objectivos a eliminação dos regimes minoritários da região vistos como ameaças. Como consequência, tais regimes reagem através de acções de desestabilização que se traduziram na criação e no apoio da RENAMO.<br /><br />Se o sistema de político e económico já impelia a população a um situação de Insegurança Humana, a desestabilização veio agravar o facto. Com efeito os regimes minoritários, vendo a sua Segurança ameaçada, aproveitam-se das vulnerabilidades criadas pelo sistema político e económico e promovem acções de desestabilização, em nome da G.F. e em defesa do capitalismo e da democracia contra o socialismo. Como resultado, Moçambique viveu durante 16 anos uma Guerra, que cuja vitima principal foi o homem. O fim deste cenário passava necessariamente pelo AGP e início do processo de democratização.<br /><br />O processo de democratização significou mais do que a criação de instituições, um esforço no sentido de se garantir uma convivência social política e económica, na diversidade de ideias, culturas e opiniões que permita o desenvolvimento, ou seja a Segurança Humana.<br /><br />O processo de democratização, promoveu no pais um ambiente de reconciliação entre as forças internas – a igreja, os partidos políticos, a sociedade civil, a autoridade tradicional, os agentes económicos - e externas – os regime do apartheid e o ocidente - que se confrontavam com o sistema político e a estratégia de desenvolvimento socialista. Por outro lado este processo veio cultivar a cultura de tolerância fortalecer o relacionamento vertical e horizontal entre o cidadão e o Estado e entre os cidadãos. <br /> A consolidação das estruturas democráticas moçambicanas tem sido continuamente posta em causa por uma cultura caracterizada por estruturas neo-patrimonias e corrupção dentro do aparelho do Estado, factos que aliados aos crescentes índices de analfabetismo podem por em causa a segurança humana.NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4501432984982211786.post-85012749964823393682008-11-26T04:14:00.000-08:002008-11-26T04:15:53.982-08:00BIBLIOGRAFIAArão Dava<br /><br />6 - REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS<br /><br /> 6.1 - OBRAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS<br /><br />· Abrahamsson, Hans (2001) Aproveitando a Oportunidade. Espaço de Manobra numa ordem mundial em transformação : O caso de Moçambique. Chalmers Repocentral. Gotemburgo.<br />· Ardnt Channing. (2003) HIV/AIDS, Human Capital, and Economic Growth Prospects for Mozambique. África Region Working Paper Series –48, February 2003.<br />· Cabaço, J (1995) A longa estrada da Democracia moçambicana, in Mazula Brazao (ed.) Moçambique, Eleições e Desenvolvimento, pp. 79 114.<br />· Chabal, Patrick (1998) A Transição democrática em África :Problemas e Perspectivas. Que Nações, que Estados em Construção nos Cinco ? Fundação Amílcar Cabral. Praia, 143-157.<br />· Cline, Sbyl W. 1989 RENAMO em Defesa da Democracia em Moçambique. Washinton D.c : Conselho de Estratégia Global dos Estados Unidos.<br />· David Charles Phillipe. Guerra e Paz Abordagens conteporania da Segurança e Estratégia. Instituto Piaget. Lisboa<br />· Decalo, S (1992) The process, prospects and constrains of democratization in Africa. África Affairs.<br />· Festinger, Leon, (1962), A theory of cognitive dissonance, Stanford University, Stanford<br />· Francis Fukuyama, (1989) “The End of Histoty” ( O fim da História ) The Nacional Interest. No. 16 Verão, pp 3-18;<br />· Francis Fukuyama, The end of History and the last man, ( O fim da História e o último homem ) New York. A imprensa Livre,<br />· Gurr, Ted Robert (1999) Minorities, Nationalist and etnopolitical. Chester Crocker at al (eds) Managing Global Chaos : Sources of and Reponses to International Conflict. United States Institute Of Peace Press, Washington DC., 53-57.<br />· Hanlon, Joseph, 1986, Beggar your neighbors. Catholic Institute For International Relations. London<br />· Holisti, Kalevi J (1996) The State, War and the State of War, Cambridge University Press.<br />· Hunguana, Teodato (2006)“ Da Liberdade de impresa e da Eventual Revisão da lei de Impresa” .<br />· Huntigton, Samuel P. (1993) Democracy’s Third Wave. Larry Diamon & M. Plattne (eds) The Global Resurgence of Democracy. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore, 3-25.<br />· Huntigton, Samuel P (1994) O preço da Liberdade. Diálogo. Diálogo vol.27, Número 3, 3-7.<br />· Huntigton Samuel P (1996) O cheque das civilizações e a mudança na ordem mundial. Lisboa<br />· Kissinger, Henry (1996) Diplomacia. Gradiva. Lisboa.<br />· Klitgard, Robert, R. Maclean Abroa e H. L. Parris, 2000, Corrupt Cities, Oakland, CA Institut for contemporary studies,<br />· Kpuendeh , Sahr John (ed) (1992) Democratization in Africa : African Views, African Voices. National Academy Press. Washington<br />· Khun Thomas, (1982) A estrutura das Revoluções cientificas. Perspectiva. São Paulo<br />· Lala, Anícia e A. Ostheimer (2003) Como limpar as nódoas do processo democrático? Os desafios da transição democrático em Moçambique (1990-2003, Konrad-Aduauer-Stiftung. Maputo.<br />· Lijphart, A. (1998), ‘The Problem of Low and Unequal Voter Turnout – and What We Can Do About It’, Political Science Series Honlon, Joseph, (1984) Mozambique : The Revolution Under Fire. Zed Books. London<br />· Lundin; Baptista, “ Realidades Sócio-Culturais e Modelos Sócio Políticos : um problema de democratização; in Magode, José (ed) 1996:107-169.<br />· Lundin; Baptista, (1992) Comunicação feita no seminário “Moçambique no Pós-Guerra -Desafios e Realidades” organizado pelo ISRI de 14 a 18 de Dezembro em Maputo<br />· Mazula, Brazão, 1995, As eleições moçambicanas : uma trajectória da paz e da democracia, in : Mazula, Brazão (Ed.) , Eleições democracia e desenvolvimento, pp. 26-77<br />· Mazula, Brazão (2000) A construção da democracia em África : O caso Moçambicano. Ndjira. Maputo<br />· Mazula, Brazão (2002) Paz e Democracia desafiante. Brazão Mazual (ed) Moçambique :Moçambique : Dez anos de paz. Volume 1. CEDE, 17-34. Maputo.<br />· Muzlow, Barry (1985) Samora Machel, An African Revolutionary. Selected Speeches and Writings. Zed Books. London<br />· Nilsson, Ander (2001) Paz na nossa época : Para uma compreensão holistica de conflitos na sociedade mundial. Padrigu e CEEI-ISRI. Maputo<br />· Ny, Joseph s. (2002) Compreender os conflitos internacionais :Uma introdução a Teoria e a História, Terceira Ed. Gradiva. Lisboa.<br />· Okwadiba, Nnoli (1994) Etnicity and Democracy in Africa : Intevening Variable. Ikeja. Malthouse Press Ltd<br />· Picasso, J.L.Tome (2003) Da Organização da Unidade Africana (OUA) a União Africana (UA) Percurso, Lições e Desafios. CIUA<br />· Regehr, Ernie and Whelan, Peter, ( 2004) Reshaping The Security Envelop : Defense policy in human security context, Ploughshares Working papers, 4-4,<br />· Robert Keohane, (1986) Neorealism and its Critcs, ( neoliberalismo e seus críticos) New York, Columbia University Press,<br />· Solomon, Hussein and Jakkie Cilliers (1996) Sources of Southern Africa Insecurity and the Quest for Regional Integration”, in People, Poverity and Peace : Human Security in Southern Africa. Solomon and Cilliers.IDP Monograph Series Númber 4.<br />· Owen, Jhon M. “Liberalism produces Democratic Peace” in Michael.E Brown (et al) (1998) Theory of war and peace. The Mit Press. Cambrige, Massachusets, London, Ingland<br />· WAEVER Ole, The rise of the interparadigme debate in Steve Booth, Khen<br />· Weimer, Bernhad (2002) Moçambique : Dez anos de Paz – Democracia, Governação e Reforma. Brazão Mazula (ed.) Moçambique :Moçambique : Dez anos de paz. Volume 1. CEDE, 17-34.Maputo<br />· Zacarias, Agostinho (1999) “Security and State in Souhern Africa” Tauris academic Studies. New York.<br /><br />6. – DOCUMENTOS<br /><br />· Carta da Organização da Unidade Africana (COUA)<br />· Acto constitutivo da União Africana (UA)<br />· Protocolo sobre a paz e segurança da União Africana<br />· Avaliação da corrupção em Moçambique USAID, 2005<br /><br />6.3 - DICIONÁRIOS<br /><br />· Alves, Eliseu (2002) Democracia. Rui Leandro Maia (ed) Dicionário de sociologia. Porto Ed. Lisboa.<br />· Birou, Alain (1982) Dicionário de Ciências Sociais. Quinta ed. Publicações Dom Quixote, Lisboa<br />· EVANS, Graham, NEWMAN, Jeffrey, (1998) The penguin Dictionary of International Relations. Penguin Books. London.<br />· Maia, Rui Leandro (2002) Democracia Industrial. Rui Leandro Maia ed. Porto Ed. Porto.<br /><br />6.4 - PÁGINAS DA INTERNET<br /><br />· Margareth O´Grady, Pequenas Armas África – «<a href="http://www.caat.org.uk.information/publication/countries/africa-0909.php»">http://www.caat.org.uk.information/publication/countries/africa-0909.php»</a> 23 de Maio 2003.<br />· Ross, Andrew L. “A Teoria e Prática das Relações Internacionais Perspectivas Analíticas em Disputa” da Naval War College intitulada Nacional Security Decision Making. - <a href="http://www.nwc.navy.mil/nsdm/">http://www.nwc.navy.mil/nsdm/</a> 06.05.2005.<br />· Cravinho, João “ A União Europeia e o aprofundamento da Democracia em África <a href="http://www.ieei.pt/files/Paper_JoaoCravinho_final.pdf">http://www.ieei.pt/files/Paper_JoaoCravinho_final.pdf</a> - Abril – 2004.<br />· Anan, Kof <a href="http://www.u.org/news/press/docs/2000/2000050/sgsm7382/doc.html">www.u.org/news/press/docs/2000/2000050/sgsm7382/doc.html</a> Abril de 2003<br />· Relatório final da Comissão de Segurança Humana <a href="http://www.humansecurity-chs.org/finalreport%20spanish.html">www.humansecurity-chs.org/finalreport spanish.html</a> . 10 Agosto 2004<br />· Leão, Monografia disponível na Internet - http--www.iss.co.za-pubs-Monographs-No94Port-Intro.pdf – consultada a 12.04.2006NDAVENEhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17397592479699691486noreply@blogger.com0